The author would like to thank Dr. Dongxuan Jia for technical assistance. Some of the images appearing in this article were in collaboration with Dr. Malcolm S. Steinberg, Department of Molecular Biology, Princeton University. The author would also like to thank the Department of Defense Prostate Cancer Research Program (grants PC-030482 and PC-991552) and the NCI/NIH (grant R01CA118755)for their generous support.

1. Preparation of a Single Cell Suspension
<ol>
	<li>Adherent cell cultures should be grown to 90% confluence, whereupon monolayers should be rinsed twice with PBS. After draining well, add 2 mls (for 100 mm plates) of 0.05% trypsin-1 mM EDTA, and incubate at 37&deg;C until cells detach. Stop trypsinization by adding 2 mls of complete medium and gently use a 5 ml pipette to triturate the mixture until cells are in suspension. Transfer cells to a 15 ml conical tube.</li>
	<li>Add 40 &mu;l of a 10 mg/ml DNAse stock and incubate for 5 minutes at RT. Vortex briefly and centrifuge at 200 XG for 5 minutes.</li>
	<li>Discard supernatant and wash pellet with 1 ml complete tissue culture medium. Repeat, then resuspend cells in 2 mls of complete tissue culture medium.</li>
	<li>Count the cells using a hemacytometer, or automated cell counter and adjust concentration to 2.5 x 106 cells/ml. For this demonstration a BioRad TC10 automated cell counter was used.</li>
</ol>
2. Formation of Hanging Drops.
<ol>
	<li>Remove the lid from a 60 mm tissue culture dish and place 5 mls of PBS in the bottom of the dish. This will act as a hydration chamber.</li>
	<li>Invert the lid and use a 20 &mu;l pipettor to deposit 10 &mu;l drops onto the bottom of the lid. Make sure that drops are placed sufficiently apart so as to not touch. It is possible to place at least 20 drops per dish.</li>
	<li>Invert the lid onto the PBS-filled bottom chamber and incubate at 37&deg;C/5% CO2/95% humidity, monitor the drops daily and incubate until either cell sheets or aggregates have formed. A stereo microscope can be used to assess aggregate formation.</li>
	<li>Once sheets form, they can be transferred to round-bottom glass shaker flasks containing 3 mls of complete medium and incubated in a shaking water bath at 37&deg;C and 5% CO2 until spheroids form.</li>
</ol>
3. Notes
<ol>
	<li>Depending on cell size, concentration may need to be adjusted up- or down.</li>
	<li>Cells can be stained with membrane intercalating fluorescent dyes prior to hanging drop formation.</li>
	<li>Two different cell types can be differentially stained and mixed in a 1:1 (or other) ratio prior to formation of hanging drops. These can be cancer and stromal cells, embryonic tissues, or cells genetically engineered to have specific adhesive signatures.</li>
	<li>Cells can be detached from tissue culture dishes using 0.05% trypsin/2 mM calcium to preserve cadherin function.</li>
	<li>Depending on the experiment, sheet sizes can either be measured, or aggregates can be used for mechanical testing or for biochemical or molecular analysis.</li>
</ol>
4. Representative Results:
Sheet or spheroid formation typically occurs within 24 hours but may take longer depending on cell type. Figure 1 represents images captured after 18 hours of incubation of untreated prostate cancer MAT-LyLu (MLL) cells in hanging drop culture (Figure 1A) or cells treated with 25 &mu;m MEK inhibitor PD98059. Note that MEKi treatment results in a marked compaction of the cell sheet. Compaction can be quantified by measuring the size of 10-20 (or more) hanging drops and comparing average size between treatment groups. We typically analyze images using ImageJ software by thresholding each image then converting images to Binary Mode, whereupon we apply particle analysis to reveal the total image area in pixels. This can then be easily converted to square microns. Figure 2 represents a size comparison for untreated and MEKi-treated MLL cells. As noted, MEKi treatment significantly reduces sheet size as compared by Student's t-test (P&lt;0.0001). For this comparison, 10 aggregates for each of untreated and treated cells were measured. Figure 3 represents a chick embryonic liver spheroid formed after 24 hours in hanging drop culture and 2 days in a shaker bath.
The hanging drop assay can also be modified to include more than one cell type to reveal the spatial positioning adopted. For example, chick embryonic liver cells can be isolated, stained with a fluorescent membrane-intercalating dye and mixed with chick embryonic heart cells that have been stained with a different fluorescent marker. Figure 4A shows that rather than remaining intermixed, liver and heart cells tend to "sort-out" from one-another and adopt a sphere-within-a-sphere configuration in which heart cells are enveloped by liver cells. This configuration can be explained by differences in intercellular adhesion between liver and heart cells. This concept is codified in the Differential Adhesion Hypothesis which has been used to explain cell sorting behavior between embryonic germ layer tissue for amphibian3and teleost 4embryos, for pancreatic islet cell organization 5and for cell sorting between two cell populations identical in every respect other than for the expression levels of the same type of cadherin (6and Figure 4B). This result is particularly important for demonstrating how engineering a simple difference in adhesion between cell populations may result in the generation of organ structure, for example, a pancreatic islet 5.
 <img src="/files/ftp_upload/2720/2720fig1.jpg" alt="Figure 1" /> 
Figure 1. Images of cells incubated in hanging drop culture for 18 hours either in the absence (A) or presence (B) of 25 &mu;m of the MEK inhibitor PD98059. Images were captured using a Nikon Eclipse TE 300 epifluorescence microscope and a Photometrics CoolSnap ES digital camera.
 <img src="/files/ftp_upload/2720/2720fig2.jpg" alt="Figure 2" /> 
Figure 2. Quantification of MEKi-induced compaction of rat prostate cancer MLL cells. Hanging drop cultures of untreated and MEKi-treated MLL cells were incubated for 18 hours whereupon aggregate size was determined as described above. Statistical analysis of aggregate size was by Student's t-test. The asterisk represents a statistically significant difference in aggregate size (P&lt;0.0001) between untreated and MEKi-treated cells and suggests that MEKi-treatment results in significantly smaller and more compact aggregates.
 <img src="/files/ftp_upload/2720/2720fig3.jpg" alt="Figure 3" /> 
Figure 3. A spheroid formed by incubating chick embryonic liver cells in hanging drop culture for 18 hours then in an incubator/shaking bath for 48 hours. This image was captured using a Nikon SMZ800 stereo microscope and a Sony Black CCD camera.
 <img src="/files/ftp_upload/2720/2720fig4.jpg" alt="Figure 4" /> 
Figure 4. Hanging drop culture reveals sorting-out behavior between different cell types. In panel A, chick embryonic liver cells were stained with PKH-2 membrane intercalating dye and mixed in equal proportions with PKH-26 stained chick embryonic heart cells. In panel B, two N-cadherin-transfected L cell clones (LN4 and LN2a), expressing N-cad at their surfaces in the ratio of 2.4:1, were also stained with the fluorescent membrane intercalating dyes PKH-2 and PKH-26, (Sigma-Aldrich), mixed in equal proportions and cultured as hanging drops7. After 18 hours in culture, cell sheets were transferred to shaking flasks and incubated for another 48 hours. Aggregates were fixed in 2% paraformaldehyde in phosphate-buffered saline and viewed with a BioRad MRC600 scanning laser confocal microscope system attached to a Nikon Optiphot-2 microscope. Optical sections from both green and red channels were collected and a Silicon Graphix Crimson VGX workstation equipped with Vital Images Voxel View Ultra imaging software was used to assign false color to both channels and to merge the images, revealing the anatomical configurations generated.(A) Confocal optical section through an aggregate demonstrating envelopment of heart cells (here in a pseudo-color yellow) by liver cells in pseudocolor blue (from 8). (B) Confocal optical section through an aggregate demonstrating envelopment of high N-cadherin expressing cells (green) by those expressing lower levels of N-cadherin (red) (from 6).

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No conflicts of interest declared.

Studies have shown that culturing cells in a three-dimensional context (3D) produces distinct cellular morphology and signaling when compared to a rigid two-dimensional (2D) culture system9. For example, fibroblast-populated collagen gels demonstrate that fibroblast morphology in 3D is quite distinct from that observed in 2D 10,11. Similarly, 3D culture can induce tissue-specific differentiation of mammary epithelial cells. 3D culture systems have been used to distinguish between normal and malignan...

<ul>
	<li>automatic cell counter (BioRad TC10)</li>
	<li>shaking water bath with CO2 gable cover Model 3540 (Lab-line)</li>
</ul>

a simple hanging drop cell culture protocol for generation of 3d spheroids

Studies of cell-cell cohesion and cell-substratum adhesion have historically been performed on monolayer cultures adherent to rigid substrates. Cells within a tissue, however, are typically encased within a closely packed tissue mass in which cells establish intimate connections with many near-neighbors and with extracellular matrix components. Accordingly, the chemical milieu and physical forces experienced by cells within a 3D tissue are fundamentally different than those experienced by cells grown in monolayer culture. This has been shown to markedly impact cellular morphology and signaling. Several methods have been devised to generate 3D cell cultures including encapsulation of cells in collagen gels1or in biomaterial scaffolds2. Such methods, while useful, do not recapitulate the intimate direct cell-cell adhesion architecture found in normal tissues. Rather, they more closely approximate culture systems in which single cells are loosely dispersed within a 3D meshwork of ECM products. Here, we describe a simple method in which cells are placed in hanging drop culture and incubated under physiological conditions until they form true 3D spheroids in which cells are in direct contact with each other and with extracellular matrix components. The method requires no specialized equipment and can be adapted to include addition of any biological agent in very small quantities that may be of interest in elucidating effects on cell-cell or cell-ECM interaction. The method can also be used to co-culture two (or more) different cell populations so as to elucidate the role of cell-cell or cell-ECM interactions in specifying spatial relationships between cells. Cell-cell cohesion and cell-ECM adhesion are the cornerstones of studies of embryonic development, tumor-stromal cell interaction in malignant invasion, wound healing, and for applications to tissue engineering. This simple method will provide a means of generating tissue-like cellular aggregates for measurement of biomechanical properties or for molecular and biochemical analysis in a physiologically relevant model.

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about A Simple Hanging Drop Cell Culture Protocol for Generation of 3D Spheroids at JoVE.com

A Simple Hanging Drop Cell Culture Protocol for Generation of 3D Spheroids

We describe a simple, rapid method of generating 3D tissue-like spheroids and their potential application to quantify differences in cell-cell interactions.

Studies of cell-cell cohesion and cell-substratum adhesion have historically been performed on monolayer cultures adherent to rigid substrates. Cells ...

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56.8K Views.  UMDNJ-Robert Wood Johnson Medical School. We describe a simple, rapid method of generating 3D tissue-like spheroids and their potential application to quantify differences in cell-cell interactions.

Video: A Simple Hanging Drop Cell Culture Protocol for Generation of 3D Spheroids

Preparation of 3D Fibrin Scaffolds for Stem Cell Culture Applications

Stem cells are found in naturally occurring 3D microenvironments in vivo, which are often referred to as the stem cell niche 1. Culturing stem cells inside of 3D biomaterial scaffolds provides a way to accurately mimic these microenvironments, providing an advantage over traditional 2D culture methods using polystyrene as well as a method for engineering replacement tissues 2. While 2D tissue culture polystrene has been used for the majority of cell culture experiments, 3D biomaterial scaffolds can more closely replicate the microenvironments found in vivo by enabling more accurate establishment of cell polarity in the environment and possessing biochemical and mechanical properties similar to soft tissue.3 A variety of naturally derived and synthetic biomaterial scaffolds have been investigated as 3D environments for supporting stem cell growth. While synthetic scaffolds can be synthesized to have a greater range of mechanical and chemical properties and often have greater reproducibility, natural biomaterials are often composed of proteins and polysaccharides found in the extracelluar matrix and as a result contain binding sites for cell adhesion and readily support cell culture. Fibrin scaffolds, produced by polymerizing the protein fibrinogen obtained from plasma, have been widely investigated for a variety of tissue engineering applications both in vitro and in vivo 4. Such scaffolds can be modified using a variety of methods to incorporate controlled release systems for delivering therapeutic factors 5. Previous work has shown that such scaffolds can be used to successfully culture embryonic stem cells and this scaffold-based culture system can be used to screen the effects of various growth factors on the differentiation of the stem cells seeded inside 6,7.
 This protocol details the process of polymerizing fibrin scaffolds from fibrinogen solutions using the enzymatic activity of thrombin. The process takes 2 days to complete, including an overnight dialysis step for the fibrinogen solution to remove citrates that inhibit polymerization. These detailed methods rely on fibrinogen concentrations determined to be optimal for embryonic and induced pluripotent stem cell culture. Other groups have further investigated fibrin scaffolds for a wide range of cell types and applications - demonstrating the versatility of this approach 8-12.

This work details the preparation of 3D fibrin scaffolds for culturing and differentiating plutipotent stem cells. Such scaffolds can be used to screen the effects of various biological compounds on stem cell behavior as well as modified to contain drug delivery systems.

Stem cells are found in naturally occurring 3D microenvironments in vivo, which are often referred to as the stem cell niche 1. Culturing stem cells ...

3D Hydrogel Scaffolds for Articular Chondrocyte Culture and Cartilage Generation

Human articular cartilage is highly susceptible to damage and has limited self-repair and regeneration potential. Cell-based strategies to engineer cartilage tissue offer a promising solution to repair articular cartilage. To select the optimal cell source for tissue repair, it is important to develop an appropriate culture platform to systematically examine the biological and biomechanical differences in the tissue-engineered cartilage by different cell sources. Here we applied a three-dimensional (3D) biomimetic hydrogel culture platform to systematically examine cartilage regeneration potential of juvenile, adult, and osteoarthritic (OA) chondrocytes. The 3D biomimetic hydrogel consisted of synthetic component poly(ethylene glycol) and bioactive component chondroitin sulfate, which provides a physiologically relevant microenvironment for in vitro culture of chondrocytes. In addition, the scaffold may be potentially used for cell delivery for cartilage repair in vivo. Cartilage tissue engineered in the scaffold can be evaluated using quantitative gene expression, immunofluorescence staining, biochemical assays, and mechanical testing. Utilizing these outcomes, we were able to characterize the differential regenerative potential of chondrocytes of varying age, both at the gene expression level and in the biochemical and biomechanical properties of the engineered cartilage tissue. The 3D culture model could be applied to investigate the molecular and functional differences among chondrocytes and progenitor cells from different stages of normal or aberrant development.

Cartilage repair represents an unmet medical challenge and cell-based approaches to engineer human articular cartilage are a promising solution. Here, we describe three-dimensional (3D) biomimetic hydrogels as an ideal tool for the expansion and maturation of human articular chondrocytes.

Human articular cartilage is highly susceptible to damage and has limited self-repair and regeneration potential. Cell-based strategies to engineer ...

Tunable Hydrogels from Pulmonary Extracellular Matrix for 3D Cell Culture

Here we present a method for establishing multiple component cell culture hydrogels for in vitro lung cell culture. Beginning with healthy en bloc lung tissue from porcine, rat, or mouse, the tissue is perfused and submerged in subsequent chemical detergents to remove the cellular debris. Histological comparison of the tissue before and after processing confirms removal of over 95% of double stranded DNA and alpha galactosidase staining suggests the majority of cellular debris is removed. After decellularization, the tissue is lyophilized and then cryomilled into a powder. The matrix powder is digested for 48 hr in an acidic pepsin digestion solution and then neutralized to form the pregel solution. Gelation of the pregel solution can be induced by incubation at 37 &#176;C and can be used immediately following neutralization or stored at 4 &#176;C for up to two weeks. Coatings can be formed using the pregel solution on a non-treated plate for cell attachment. Cells can be suspended in the pregel prior to self-assembly to achieve a 3D culture, plated on the surface of a formed gel from which the cells can migrate through the scaffold, or plated on the coatings. Alterations to the strategy presented can impact gelation temperature, strength, or protein fragment sizes. Beyond hydrogel formation, the hydrogel stiffness may be increased using genipin.

This is a method to create a 3-dimensional cell culture scaffold from pulmonary extracellular matrix. Intact lung is processed into hydrogels that can support the growth of cells in three-dimensions.

Here we present a method for establishing multiple component cell culture hydrogels for in vitro lung cell culture. Beginning with healthy en bloc lung ...

A Protocol for Real-time 3D Single Particle Tracking

Real-time three-dimensional single particle tracking (RT-3D-SPT) has the potential to shed light on fast, 3D processes in cellular systems. Although various RT-3D-SPT methods have been put forward in recent years, tracking high speed 3D diffusing particles at low photon count rates remains a challenge. Moreover, RT-3D-SPT setups are generally complex and difficult to implement, limiting their widespread application to biological problems. This protocol presents a RT-3D-SPT system named 3D Dynamic Photon Localization Tracking (3D-DyPLoT), which can track particles with high diffusive speed (up to 20 &#181;m2/s) at low photon count rates (down to 10 kHz). 3D-DyPLoT employs a 2D electro-optic deflector (2D-EOD) and a tunable acoustic gradient (TAG) lens to drive a single focused laser spot dynamically in 3D. Combined with an optimized position estimation algorithm, 3D-DyPLoT can lock onto single particles with high tracking speed and high localization precision. Owing to the single excitation and single detection path layout, 3D-DyPLoT is robust and easy to set up. This protocol discusses how to build 3D-DyPLoT step by step. First, the optical layout is described. Next, the system is calibrated and optimized by raster scanning a 190 nm fluorescent bead with the piezoelectric nanopositioner. Finally, to demonstrate real-time 3D tracking ability, 110 nm fluorescent beads are tracked in water.

This protocol details the construction and operation of a real-time 3D single particle tracking microscope capable of tracking nanoscale fluorescent probes at high diffusive speeds and low photon count rates.

Real-time three-dimensional single particle tracking (RT-3D-SPT) has the potential to shed light on fast, 3D processes in cellular systems. Although ...

Construction of a Multilayered Mesenchymal Stem Cell Sheet with a 3D Dynamic Culture System

Stem cell therapy shows a promising future in regenerating injured organ and tissues, and the cell sheet technique has been developed to improve the low cell retention and poor survival within the target zone. However, during the in vitro construction process, a solution for maintaining stem cell bioactivity and increasing the cell amount within the cell sheet is urgently needed. Here, this protocol presents a method for constructing a multilayered cell sheet with favorable stem cell bioactivity and optimal operability. Decellularized porcine pericardium (DPP) is prepared by phospholipase A2 (PLA2) decellularization method as the cell sheet scaffold, and rat bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs) are isolated and expanded as the seeded cells. The temporary multilayered cell sheet structure is constructed by using RAD16-I peptide hydrogel. Finally, the cell sheet is cultured with a dynamic perfusion system to stabilize the three-dimensional (3D) structure, and the cell sheet could be obtained following a 48-hour culture in vitro. This protocol provides an efficient and feasible method for constructing a multilayered stem cell sheet, and the cell sheet could be developed as a favorable stem cell therapy product in the future.

This article provides an efficient and feasible method for constructing multilayered stem cell sheets with favorable stem cell property.

Stem cell therapy shows a promising future in regenerating injured organ and tissues, and the cell sheet technique has been developed to improve the low ...

A Human 3D Extracellular Matrix-Adipocyte Culture Model for Studying Matrix-Cell Metabolic Crosstalk

The extracellular matrix (ECM) plays a central role in regulating tissue homeostasis, engaging in crosstalk with cells and regulating multiple aspects of cellular function. The ECM plays a particularly important role in adipose tissue function in obesity, and alterations in adipose tissue ECM deposition and composition are associated with metabolic disease in mice and humans. Tractable in vitro models that permit dissection of the roles of the ECM and cells in contributing to global tissue phenotype are sparse. We describe a novel 3D in vitro model of human ECM-adipocyte culture that permits study of the specific roles of the ECM and adipocytes in regulating adipose tissue metabolic phenotype. Human adipose tissue is decellularized to isolate ECM, which is subsequently repopulated with preadipocytes that are then differentiated within the ECM into mature adipocytes. This method creates ECM-adipocyte constructs that are metabolically active and retain characteristics of the tissues and patients from which they are derived. We have used this system to demonstrate disease-specific ECM-adipocyte crosstalk in human adipose tissue. This culture model provides a tool for dissecting the roles of the ECM and adipocytes in contributing to global adipose tissue metabolic phenotype and permits study of the role of the ECM in regulating adipose tissue homeostasis.

We describe a 3D human extracellular matrix-adipocyte in vitro culture system that permits dissection of the roles of the matrix and adipocytes in contributing to adipose tissue metabolic phenotype.

The extracellular matrix (ECM) plays a central role in regulating tissue homeostasis, engaging in crosstalk with cells and regulating multiple aspects of ...

Large-Scale, Automated Production of Adipose-Derived Stem Cell Spheroids for 3D Bioprinting

Adipose-derived stromal/stem cells (ASCs) are a subpopulation of cells found in the stromal vascular fraction of human subcutaneous adipose tissue recognized as a classical source of mesenchymal stromal/stem cells. Many studies have been published with ASCs for scaffold-based tissue engineering approaches, which mainly explored the behavior of these cells after their seeding on bioactive scaffolds. However, scaffold-free approaches are emerging to engineer tissues in vitro and in vivo, mainly by using spheroids, to overcome the limitations of scaffold-based approaches.
Spheroids are 3D microtissues formed by the self-assembly process. They can better mimic the architecture and microenvironment of native tissues, mainly due to the magnification of cell-to-cell and cell-to-extracellular matrix interactions. Recently, spheroids are mainly being explored as disease models, drug screening studies, and building blocks for 3D bioprinting. However, for 3D bioprinting approaches, numerous spheroids, homogeneous in size and shape, are necessary to biofabricate complex tissue and organ models. In addition, when spheroids are produced automatically, there is little chance for microbiological contamination, increasing the reproducibility of the method.
The large-scale production of spheroids is considered the first mandatory step for developing a biofabrication line, which continues in the 3D bioprinting process and finishes in the full maturation of the tissue construct in bioreactors. However, the number of studies that explored the large-scale ASC spheroid production are still scarce, together with the number of studies that used ASC spheroids as building blocks for 3D bioprinting. Therefore, this article aims to show the large-scale production of ASC spheroids using a non-adhesive micromolded hydrogel technique spreading ASC spheroids as building blocks for 3D bioprinting approaches.

Here, we describe the large-scale production of adipose-derived stromal/stem cell (ASC) spheroids using an automated pipetting system to seed the cell suspension, thus ensuring homogeneity of spheroid size and shape. These ASC spheroids can be used as building blocks for 3D bioprinting approaches.

Adipose-derived stromal/stem cells (ASCs) are a subpopulation of cells found in the stromal vascular fraction of human subcutaneous adipose tissue ...

Generation of Multicue Cellular Microenvironments by UV-Photopatterning of Three-Dimensional Cell Culture Substrates

The extracellular matrix is an important regulator of cell function. Environmental cues existing in the cellular microenvironment, such as ligand distribution and tissue geometry, have been increasingly shown to play critical roles in governing cell phenotype and behavior. However, these environmental cues and their effects on cells are often studied separately using in vitro platforms that isolate individual cues, a strategy that heavily oversimplifies the complex in vivo situation of multiple cues. Engineering approaches can be particularly useful to bridge this gap, by developing experimental setups that capture the complexity of the in vivo microenvironment, yet retain the degree of precision and manipulability of in vitro systems.
This study highlights an approach combining ultraviolet (UV)-based protein patterning and lithography-based substrate microfabrication, which together enable high-throughput investigation into cell behaviors in multicue environments. By means of maskless UV-photopatterning, it is possible to create complex, adhesive protein distributions on three-dimensional (3D) cell culture substrates on chips that contain a variety of well-defined geometrical cues. The proposed technique can be employed for culture substrates made from different polymeric materials and combined with adhesive patterned areas of a broad range of proteins. With this approach, single cells, as well as monolayers, can be subjected to combinations of geometrical cues and contact guidance cues presented by the patterned substrates. Systematic research using combinations of chip materials, protein patterns, and cell types can thus provide fundamental insights into cellular responses to multicue environments.

Traditionally, cell culture is performed on planar substrates that poorly mimic the natural environment of cells in vivo. Here we describe a method to produce cell culture substrates with physiologically relevant curved geometries and micropatterned extracellular proteins, allowing systematic investigations into cellular sensing of these extracellular cues.

The extracellular matrix is an important regulator of cell function. Environmental cues existing in the cellular microenvironment, such as ligand ...

Human Liver Spheroids from Peripheral Blood for Liver Disease Studies

Human liver cells can form a three-dimensional (3D) structure capable of growing in culture for some weeks, preserving their functional capacity. Due to their nature to cluster in the culture dishes with low or no adhesive characteristics, they form aggregates of multiple liver cells that are called human liver spheroids. The forming of 3D liver spheroids relies on the natural tendency of hepatic cells to aggregate in the absence of an adhesive substrate. These 3D structures possess better physiological responses than cells, which are closer to an in vivo environment. Using 3D hepatocyte cultures has numerous advantages when compared with classical two-dimensional (2D) cultures, including a more biologically relevant microenvironment, architectural morphology that reassembles natural organs as well as a better prediction regarding disease state and in vivo-like responses to drugs. Various sources can be used to generate spheroids, like primary liver tissue or immortalized cell lines. The 3D liver tissue can also be engineered by using human embryonic stem cells (hESCs) or induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSCs) to derive hepatocytes. We have obtained human liver spheroids using blood-derived pluripotent stem cells (BD-PSCs) generated from unmanipulated peripheral blood by activation of human membrane-bound GPI-linked protein and differentiated to human hepatocytes. The BD-PSCs-derived human liver cells and human liver spheroids were analyzed by light microscopy and immunophenotyping using human hepatocyte markers.

Here we present a non-genetic method to generate human autologous liver spheroids using mononuclear cells isolated from steady-state peripheral blood.

Human liver cells can form a three-dimensional (3D) structure capable of growing in culture for some weeks, preserving their functional capacity. Due to ...

Generation, High-Throughput Screening, and Biobanking of Human-Induced Pluripotent Stem Cell-Derived Cardiac Spheroids

Human-induced pluripotent stem cell-derived cardiomyocytes (hiPSC-CMs) are of paramount importance for human cardiac disease modeling and therapeutics. We recently published a cost-effective strategy for the massive expansion of hiPSC-CMs in two dimensions (2D). Two major limitations are cell immaturity and a lack of three-dimensional (3D) arrangement and scalability in high-throughput screening (HTS) platforms. To overcome these limitations, the expanded cardiomyocytes form an ideal cell source for the generation of 3D cardiac cell culture and tissue engineering techniques. The latter holds great potential in the cardiovascular field, providing more advanced and physiologically relevant HTS. Here, we describe an HTS-compatible workflow with easy scalability for the generation, maintenance, and optical analysis of cardiac spheroids (CSs) in a 96-well-format. These small CSs are essential to fill the gap present in current in vitro disease models and/or generation for 3D tissue engineering platforms. The CSs present a highly structured morphology, size, and cellular composition. Furthermore, hiPSC-CMs cultured as CSs display increased maturation and several functional features of the human heart, such as spontaneous calcium handling and contractile activity. By automatization of the complete workflow, from the generation of CSs to functional analysis, we increase intra- and inter-batch reproducibility as demonstrated by high-throughput (HT) imaging and calcium handling analysis. The described protocol allows modeling of cardiac diseases and assessing drug/therapeutic effects at the single-cell level within a complex 3D cell environment in a fully automated HTS workflow. In addition, the study describes a straightforward procedure for long-term preservation and biobanking of whole-spheroids, thereby providing researchers the opportunity to create next-generation functional tissue storage. HTS combined with long-term storage will substantially contribute to translational research in a wide range of areas, including drug discovery and testing, regenerative medicine, and the development of personalized therapies.

Presented here is a set of protocols for the generation and cryopreservation of cardiac spheroids (CSs) from human-induced pluripotent stem cell-derived cardiomyocytes cultured in a high-throughput, multidimensional format. This three-dimensional model functions as a robust platform for disease modeling, high-throughput screenings, and maintains its functionality after cryopreservation.

Human-induced pluripotent stem cell-derived cardiomyocytes (hiPSC-CMs) are of paramount importance for human cardiac disease modeling and therapeutics. We ...