This work was funded by NEI and NIMH.

1. VideoSwitcher
1.1. Connect VideoSwitcher to a computer
The VideoSwitcher (Figure 1) receives analog video (VGA) inputs and is used to drive cathode ray tube (CRT) color monitors. Before using the VideoSwitcher, make sure the computer graphics card has either a VGA port (Figure 2A) or a Digital Visual Interface (DVI-I) port (Figure 2B) that transmits both digital and analog video signals. A DVI-to-VGA adaptor (Figure 2C) is necessary to connect the DVI-I port to the VideoSwitcher.
Turn off the computer and monitor and disconnect the monitor from the computer graphics card.
Connect the VGA or the DVI-I port of the computer graphics card to the input port of the VideoSwitcher using the provided VGA cable. Use a small screw driver to secure the connections. 
Connect the monitor's VGA cable to the output port of the VideoSwitcher and secure the connections. 
Connect the VideoSwitcher to a power source using the provided power adaptor.
Turn on the computer and the monitor.
1.2. Two display modes of the video switcher
The switch button on the VideoSwitcher allows the user to switch back-and-forth in two display modes. In the color mode, the VideoSwitcher does not alter the video signal from the computer graphics card. In the grayscale mode, the display becomes monochromatic, with its luminance determined mostly by the video signal from the blue channel of the graphics card, slightly affected by the signal from the red channel, and no contribution from the green channel. This is because the resister network inside the VideoSwitcher attenuates the signal from the red channel by a factor of about 128, and the signal from the green channel doesn't contribute at all. The ratio of the contributions of the blue and red channels to the output of the VideoSwitcher is called blue-to-red ratio (BRratio). The BRratio is property of a Video Switcher, independent of the display setup. It can be determined experimentally for each VideoSwitcher (see 1.3). 
The display mode can also be switched by sending a special signal through the green channel of the graphics card using a function call in Matlab:
PsychVideoSwitcher('SwitchMode', whichScreen, ToGrayMode);
where ToGrayMode of 1 or 0 means to switch to grayscale or color mode.
Figure 3 shows the schematic of a VideoSwitcher. 
1.3. Measure BRratio
The BRratio can be measured for each VideoSwitcher using a square wave grating detection task. The two levels of the square wave are assigned RGB values such as (0, 0, 40) and (x, 0, 39). One can adjust the value of x until the square wave grating disappears, at which point the x value is the BRratio --- the magnitude of the signal in the R-channel that leads to the intensity produced by one unit of signal in the B-channel. Although one can measure the BRratio electronically, for example to measure the ratio of the voltage outputs of a VideoSwitcher at RGB values of (0, 0, 255) and (255, 0, 0), the psychophysical method described here is very simple and accurate.
1.4. Display Calibration
For most monitors, display luminance doesn't increase linearly with the pixel gray level specified by the computer graphics card. The relationship can be described as: 
<img src="/files/ftp_upload/3312/3312eq1.jpg" alt="Equation 1" /> 
where Lmax, Lmin and &gamma; are determined with a Gamma correction procedure, either by using photometers or by a combination of psychophysical procedures and photometric measurements 7,8. Gamma calibration is important to produce accurate contrasts on a display; it must be performed for each display device.
With a photometer, one can simply display a large uniform square at different pixel graylevels (e.g., from 0 to 255), measure the luminance of the center of the square, and fit the results with Equation 1 to obtain &gamma;. 
The psychophysical procedure involves creating, in one area of the viewing surface, as uniform as possible a mixture (in space and time) of equal quantities of zero- and full-intensity pixels and determining the graylevel value of pixels in an adjacent homogeneous area (in which all the pixels have the same intensity) that produces a psychophysical match to the luminance of the mixed-pixel area. The first match determines the graylevel value for 1/2 of maximum luminance. A mixture of pixels with luminance intensities 1/2 and 1 is used to determine the 3&#x2044;4 value, and this procedure is repeated until seven values from 1&#x2044;8 to 7&#x2044;8 have been determined. These matches are repeated, and various checks for consistency are made, such as verifying that a mixture of 3&#x2044;4 and 1&#x2044;4 matches 1/2. In this procedure, both the B and R levels of the homogeneous area are adjusted, and U=B+R/BRratio. The results can be fit with Equation 1 to obtain &gamma;.
After we obtain values of Lmin, Lmax and &gamma;, we can set the background luminance L0 = (Lmax +Lmin)/2, The relationship between pixel contrast c(U) and pixel gray level U is: 
<img src="/files/ftp_upload/3312/3312eq2.jpg" alt="Equation 2" />
We can rewrite the equation to solve for the required gray level for a given contrast: 
<img src="/files/ftp_upload/3312/3312eq3.jpg" alt="Equation 3" /> 
where U is normally a non-integer number. The RGB value of the corresponding pixel is: R=BRratio*[U-int(U)], G=0, B=int(U), where int() takes the integer value of its input.
1.5. Demo of a sine wave grating
The effect of increased grayscale resolution can be shown by comparing two sine wave gratings. The grating on the left uses the full capacity of the VideoSwitcher with each pixel intensity specified by the appropriate R and B values. The grating on the right is the same as the left one except that only the rounded U is used as B value of each pixel, mimicking the output of an 8-bit display device. 
2. RTbox
2.1. Connect the RTbox to a computer
Connect the RTbox (Figure 4) to a USB port of a computer with the provided cable. If needed, download the driver of the device from <a href="http://www.ftdichip.com/Drivers/VCP.htm">http://www.ftdichip.com/Drivers/VCP.htm</a>. Install the driver following the instructions on the website.
2.2. Use the RTbox to measure response time
The RTbox can be used in two different ways.
If the user's program can return reliable stimulus onset times, such as the time returned by Screen('Flip') and PsychPortAudio in Psychtoolbox [8], the RTbox can be used just like a keyboard. Because stimulus onset times and RTbox button times are based the clocks of the host computer and the RTbox, respectively, we must synchronize the two clocks. This is done with a function call RTBox('clear') prior to each stimulus onset to clear unwanted events in the buffer. The response time can be simply measured as tresp= t - tonset, where tonset is the stimulus returned from the user program, and t is the button time returned by the function call [t, button]=RTBox(timeout). This is because the RTBox driver automatically converts the button time from the RTbox time to host computer time. 
If the user's program can't return reliable stimulus onset times, trigger signals indicating stimulus onsets must be provided to the RTbox. One solution is to use a light sensor to detect the onset of the stimulus or a light patch that is synchronized to the stimulus. The output of the light sensor is connected to the light port of the RTbox. A second solution is to use the trigger output of the VideoSwitcher. The trigger can be directly connected to the pulse port of the RTbox. A third solution is to connect the audio signal of the host computer to the sound port of the RTbox. 
To generate a stimulus onset trigger from the VideoSwitcher, we "turn on" the green channel of the pixels in the central portion of the first frame of the visual stimulus. Because it does not contribute to the resistor network, the signal in the green channel is invisible to the subject. A function call [t, button]=RTBox('pulse', timeout) returns the response time, where 'pulse' instructs the RTbox to compute the response time relative to the trigger. The same function call is used for sound trigger. For light sensor triggers, the function call is [t, button]=RTBox('light', timeout).
3. Integrate VideoSwitcher and RTbox
We have programmed a demonstration program that uses the VideoSwitcher to control the display, the RTbox to collect accurate response time, and the RTbox to send event code and responses to an ERP system. The program can be downloaded from <a href="http://lobes.usc.edu/videoswitcher/VideoSwitcherRTBoxERP_demo.m">http://lobes.usc.edu/videoswitcher/VideoSwitcherRTBoxERP_demo.m</a>.
4. Representative Results
<img src="/files/ftp_upload/3312/3312fig1.jpg" alt="Figure 1" /> 
Figure 1. Picture of a video switcher. It has VGA input and output ports (both female), a button to switch between two display modes, and a trigger output port.
<img src="/files/ftp_upload/3312/3312fig2.jpg" alt="Figure 2" /> 
Figure 2. Pictures of VGA (A) and DVI-I (B) ports and a DVI-I to VGA adaptor (C). 
<img src="/files/ftp_upload/3312/3312fig3.jpg" alt="Figure 3" /> 
Figure 3. The schematic of a video switcher. The multiplexer has two input modes, controlled by a voltage level. When it is in the mode shown in the schematic, the RGB channels of a monitor receive the same signal, so the display is in grayscale mode. The switching voltage is generated by a CPLD chip, controlled by signals in the G-channel and the switch button. The trigger is also controlled by the input in the G-channel.
<img src="/files/ftp_upload/3312/3312fig4.jpg" alt="Figure 4" /> 
Figure 4. Picture of an RTbox. It has a USB-B port, a light input port, a pulse/sound input port, an external button input port, and a TTL output port.

<ol>
	<li>Li, X., Lu, Z. -. L., Xu, P., Jin, J., Zhou, Y. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Generating+high+gray-level+resolution+monochrome+displays+with+conventional+computer+graphics+cards+and+color+monitors.">Generating high gray-level resolution monochrome displays with conventional computer graphics cards and color monitors.</a> Journal of Neuroscience Methods. 130 (1), 9-18 (2003).</li><li>Pelli, D. G., Zhang, L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Accurate+control+of+contrast+on+microcomputer+displays.">Accurate control of contrast on microcomputer displays.</a> Vision Research. 31, 1337-1350 (1991).</li><li>Li, X., Liang, Z., Kleiner, M., Lu, Z. -. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=RTbox:+A+device+for+highly+accurate+response+time+measurements.">RTbox: A device for highly accurate response time measurements.</a> Behavior Research Methods. 42 (1), 212-225 (2010).</li><li>Lu, Z. L., Sperling, G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Second-order+reversed+phi.">Second-order reversed phi.</a> Perception Psychophysics. 61, 1075-1088 (1999).</li><li>Colombo, E., Derrington, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Visual+calibration+of+CRT+monitors.">Visual calibration of CRT monitors.</a> Displays. 22, 87-95 (2001).</li></ol>

No conflicts of interest declared.

The video switcher provides a compact, inexpensive, and easy-to-use method to generate high luminance resolution displays using conventional computer graphics cards and analog color monitors. It is connected between the analog outputs of the graphics card and the monitor. It can also switch between monochromatic and chromatic display modes, providing additional convenience. Its trigger channel allows researchers to synchronize other equipment to visual displays.
The RTbox is a compact, inexpen...

enabling high grayscale resolution displays and accurate response time measurements on conventional computers

Display systems based on conventional computer graphics cards are capable of generating images with 8-bit gray level resolution. However, most experiments in vision research require displays with more than 12 bits of luminance resolution. Several solutions are available. Bit++ 1 and DataPixx 2 use the Digital Visual Interface (DVI) output from graphics cards and high resolution (14 or 16-bit) digital-to-analog converters to drive analog display devices. The VideoSwitcher 3 described here combines analog video signals from the red and blue channels of graphics cards with different weights using a passive resister network 4 and an active circuit to deliver identical video signals to the three channels of color monitors. The method provides an inexpensive way to enable high-resolution monochromatic displays using conventional graphics cards and analog monitors. It can also provide trigger signals that can be used to mark stimulus onsets, making it easy to synchronize visual displays with physiological recordings or response time measurements.
Although computer keyboards and mice are frequently used in measuring response times (RT), the accuracy of these measurements is quite low. The RTbox is a specialized hardware and software solution for accurate RT measurements. Connected to the host computer through a USB connection, the driver of the RTbox is compatible with all conventional operating systems. It uses a microprocessor and high-resolution clock to record the identities and timing of button events, which are buffered until the host computer retrieves them. The recorded button events are not affected by potential timing uncertainties or biases associated with data transmission and processing in the host computer. The asynchronous storage greatly simplifies the design of user programs. Several methods are available to synchronize the clocks of the RTbox and the host computer. The RTbox can also receive external triggers and be used to measure RT with respect to external events. 
Both VideoSwitcher and RTbox are available for users to purchase. The relevant information and many demonstration programs can be found at <a href="http://lobes.usc.edu/">http://lobes.usc.edu/</a>.

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Enabling High Grayscale Resolution Displays and Accurate Response Time Measurements on Conventional Computers at JoVE.com

Enabling High Grayscale Resolution Displays and Accurate Response Time Measurements on Conventional Computers

Conventional computer hardware can not generate visual stimuli with sufficiently high grayscale resolution and measure response times with sufficient accuracy. We describe how to use the VideoSwitcher to produce high-resolution monochromatic displays, and the RTbox to measure response times with high accuracy on conventional computer hardware.

Display systems based on conventional computer graphics cards are capable of generating images with 8-bit gray level resolution. However, most experiments ...

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9.3K Views.  The Ohio State University. Conventional computer hardware can not generate visual stimuli with sufficiently high grayscale resolution and measure response times with sufficient accuracy. We describe how to use the VideoSwitcher to produce high-resolution monochromatic displays, and the RTbox to measure response times with high accuracy on conventional computer hardware.

Video: Enabling High Grayscale Resolution Displays and Accurate Response Time Measurements on Conventional Computers

An Organotypic Slice Assay for High-Resolution Time-Lapse Imaging of Neuronal Migration in the Postnatal Brain

Neurogenesis in the postnatal brain depends on maintenance of three biological events: proliferation of progenitor cells, migration of neuroblasts, as well as differentiation and integration of new neurons into existing neural circuits. For postnatal neurogenesis in the olfactory bulbs, these events are segregated within three anatomically distinct domains: proliferation largely occurs in the subependymal zone (SEZ) of the lateral ventricles, migrating neuroblasts traverse through the rostral migratory stream (RMS), and new neurons differentiate and integrate within the olfactory bulbs (OB). The three domains serve as ideal platforms to study the cellular, molecular, and physiological mechanisms that regulate each of the biological events distinctly. This paper describes an organotypic slice assay optimized for postnatal brain tissue, in which the extracellular conditions closely mimic the in vivo environment for migrating neuroblasts. We show that our assay provides for uniform, oriented, and speedy movement of neuroblasts within the RMS. This assay will be highly suitable for the study of cell autonomous and non-autonomous regulation of neuronal migration by utilizing cross-transplantation approaches from mice on different genetic backgrounds.

This protocol describes an organotypic slice assay optimized for the postnatal brain and high-resolution time-lapse imaging of neuroblast migration in the rostral migratory stream.

Neurogenesis in the postnatal brain depends on maintenance of three biological events: proliferation of progenitor cells, migration of neuroblasts, as ...

A Rapid Approach to High-Resolution Fluorescence Imaging in Semi-Thick Brain Slices

A fundamental goal to both basic and clinical neuroscience is to better understand the identities, molecular makeup, and patterns of connectivity that are characteristic to neurons in both normal and diseased brain. Towards this, a great deal of effort has been placed on building high-resolution neuroanatomical maps1-3. With the expansion of molecular genetics and advances in light microscopy has come the ability to query not only neuronal morphologies, but also the molecular and cellular makeup of individual neurons and their associated networks4. Major advances in the ability to mark and manipulate neurons through transgenic and gene targeting technologies in the rodent now allow investigators to 'program' neuronal subsets at will5-6. Arguably, one of the most influential contributions to contemporary neuroscience has been the discovery and cloning of genes encoding fluorescent proteins (FPs) in marine invertebrates7-8, alongside their subsequent engineering to yield an ever-expanding toolbox of vital reporters9. Exploiting cell type-specific promoter activity to drive targeted FP expression in discrete neuronal populations now affords neuroanatomical investigation with genetic precision.
Engineering FP expression in neurons has vastly improved our understanding of brain structure and function. However, imaging individual neurons and their associated networks in deep brain tissues, or in three dimensions, has remained a challenge. Due to high lipid content, nervous tissue is rather opaque and exhibits auto fluorescence. These inherent biophysical properties make it difficult to visualize and image fluorescently labelled neurons at high resolution using standard epifluorescent or confocal microscopy beyond depths of tens of microns. To circumvent this challenge investigators often employ serial thin-section imaging and reconstruction methods10, or 2-photon laser scanning microscopy11. Current drawbacks to these approaches are the associated labor-intensive tissue preparation, or cost-prohibitive instrumentation respectively.
Here, we present a relatively rapid and simple method to visualize fluorescently labelled cells in fixed semi-thick mouse brain slices by optical clearing and imaging. In the attached protocol we describe the methods of: 1) fixing brain tissue in situ via intracardial perfusion, 2) dissection and removal of whole brain, 3) stationary brain embedding in agarose, 4) precision semi-thick slice preparation using new vibratome instrumentation, 5) clearing brain tissue through a glycerol gradient, and 6) mounting on glass slides for light microscopy and z-stack reconstruction (Figure 1).
For preparing brain slices we implemented a relatively new piece of instrumentation called the 'Compresstome' VF-200 (http://www.precisionary.com/products_vf200.html). This instrument is a semi-automated microtome equipped with a motorized advance and blade vibration system with features similar in function to other vibratomes. Unlike other vibratomes, the tissue to be sliced is mounted in an agarose plug within a stainless steel cylinder. The tissue is extruded at desired thicknesses from the cylinder, and cut by the forward advancing vibrating blade. The agarose plug/cylinder system allows for reproducible tissue mounting, alignment, and precision cutting. In our hands, the 'Compresstome' yields high quality tissue slices for electrophysiology, immunohistochemistry, and direct fixed-tissue mounting and imaging. Combined with optical clearing, here we demonstrate the preparation of semi-thick fixed brain slices for high-resolution fluorescent imaging.

Here we describe a rapid and simple method to image fluorescently labeled cells in semi-thick brain slices. By fixing, slicing, and optically clearing brain tissue we describe how standard epifluorescent or confocal imaging can be used to visualize individual cells and neuronal networks within intact nervous tissue.

A fundamental goal to both basic and clinical neuroscience is to better understand the identities, molecular makeup, and patterns of connectivity that are ...

High-resolution Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging Methods for Human Midbrain

Functional MRI (fMRI) is a widely used tool for non-invasively measuring correlates of human brain activity. However, its use has mostly been focused upon measuring activity on the surface of cerebral cortex rather than in subcortical regions such as midbrain and brainstem. Subcortical fMRI must overcome two challenges: spatial resolution and physiological noise. Here we describe an optimized set of techniques developed to perform high-resolution fMRI in human SC, a structure on the dorsal surface of the midbrain; the methods can also be used to image other brainstem and subcortical structures.
High-resolution (1.2 mm voxels) fMRI of the SC requires a non-conventional approach. The desired spatial sampling is obtained using a multi-shot (interleaved) spiral acquisition1. Since, T2* of SC tissue is longer than in cortex, a correspondingly longer echo time (TE ~ 40 msec) is used to maximize functional contrast. To cover the full extent of the SC, 8-10 slices are obtained. For each session a structural anatomy with the same slice prescription as the fMRI is also obtained, which is used to align the functional data to a high-resolution reference volume.
In a separate session, for each subject, we create a high-resolution (0.7 mm sampling) reference volume using a T1-weighted sequence that gives good tissue contrast. In the reference volume, the midbrain region is segmented using the ITK-SNAP software application2. This segmentation is used to create a 3D surface representation of the midbrain that is both smooth and accurate3. The surface vertices and normals are used to create a map of depth from the midbrain surface within the tissue4.
Functional data is transformed into the coordinate system of the segmented reference volume. Depth associations of the voxels enable the averaging of fMRI time series data within specified depth ranges to improve signal quality. Data is rendered on the 3D surface for visualization.
In our lab we use this technique for measuring topographic maps of visual stimulation and covert and overt visual attention within the SC1. As an example, we demonstrate the topographic representation of polar angle to visual stimulation in SC.

This article describes techniques to perform high-resolution functional magnetic resonance imaging with 1.2 mm sampling in human midbrain and subcortical structures using a 3T scanner. Use of these techniques to resolve topographic maps of visual stimulation in the human superior colliculus (SC) is given as an example.

Functional MRI (fMRI) is a widely used tool for non-invasively measuring correlates of human brain activity. However, its use has mostly been focused upon ...

High-resolution Live Imaging of Cell Behavior in the Developing Neuroepithelium

The embryonic spinal cord consists of cycling neural progenitor cells that give rise to a large percentage of the neuronal and glial cells of the central nervous system (CNS). Although much is known about the molecular mechanisms that pattern the spinal cord and elicit neuronal differentiation1, 2, we lack a deep understanding of these early events at the level of cell behavior. It is thus critical to study the behavior of neural progenitors in real time as they undergo neurogenesis.
In the past, real-time imaging of early embryonic tissue has been limited by cell/tissue viability in culture as well as the phototoxic effects of fluorescent imaging. Here we present a novel assay for imaging such tissue for long periods of time, utilizing a novel ex vivo slice culture protocol and wide-field fluorescence microscopy (Fig. 1). This approach achieves long-term time-lapse monitoring of chick embryonic spinal cord progenitor cells with high spatial and temporal resolution.
This assay may be modified to image a range of embryonic tissues3, 4 In addition to the observation of cellular and sub-cellular behaviors, the development of novel and highly sensitive reporters for gene activity (for example, Notch signaling5) makes this assay a powerful tool with which to understand how signaling regulates cell behavior during embryonic development.

Imaging embryonic tissue in real-time is challenging over long periods of time. Here we present an assay for monitoring cellular and sub-cellular changes in chick spinal cord for long periods with high spatial and temporal resolution. This technique can be adapted for other regions of the nervous system and developing embryo.

The embryonic spinal cord consists of cycling neural progenitor cells that give rise to a large percentage of the neuronal and glial cells of the central ...

In Vivo Electrophysiological Measurements on Mouse Sciatic Nerves

Electrophysiological studies allow a rational classification of various neuromuscular diseases and are of help, together with neuropathological techniques, in the understanding of the underlying pathophysiology1. Here we describe a method to perform electrophysiological studies on mouse sciatic nerves in vivo.
The animals are anesthetized with isoflurane in order to ensure analgesia for the tested mice and undisturbed working environment during the measurements that take about 30 min/animal. A constant body temperature of 37 &#176;C is maintained by a heating plate and continuously measured by a rectal thermo probe2. Additionally, an electrocardiogram (ECG) is routinely recorded during the measurements in order to continuously monitor the physiological state of the investigated animals.
Electrophysiological recordings are performed on the sciatic nerve, the largest nerve of the peripheral nervous system (PNS), supplying the mouse hind limb with both motoric and sensory fiber tracts. In our protocol, sciatic nerves remain in situ and therefore do not have to be extracted or exposed, allowing measurements without any adverse nerve irritations along with actual recordings. Using appropriate needle electrodes3 we perform both proximal and distal nerve stimulations, registering the transmitted potentials with sensing electrodes at gastrocnemius muscles. After data processing, reliable and highly consistent values for the nerve conduction velocity (NCV) and the compound motor action potential (CMAP), the key parameters for quantification of gross peripheral nerve functioning, can be achieved.

In Vivo Electrophysiological Measurements on Mouse Sciatic Nerves

Measurements of nerve conduction properties in vivo exemplify a powerful tool to characterize various animal models of neuromuscular diseases. Here, we present an easy and reliable protocol by which electrophysiological analysis on sciatic nerves of anesthetized mice can be performed.

Electrophysiological studies allow a rational classification of various neuromuscular diseases and are of help, together with neuropathological ...

Detection of Axonally Localized mRNAs in Brain Sections Using High-Resolution In Situ Hybridization

mRNAs are frequently localized to vertebrate axons and their local translation is required for axon pathfinding or branching during development and for maintenance, repair or neurodegeneration in postdevelopmental periods. High throughput analyses have recently revealed that axons have a more dynamic and complex transcriptome than previously expected. These analysis, however have been mostly done in cultured neurons where axons can be isolated from the somato-dendritic compartments. It is virtually impossible to achieve such isolation in whole tissues in vivo. Thus, in order to verify the recruitment of mRNAs and their functional relevance in a whole animal, transcriptome analyses should ideally be combined with techniques that allow the visualization of mRNAs in situ. Recently, novel ISH technologies that detect RNAs at a single-molecule level have been developed. This is especially important when analyzing the subcellular localization of mRNA, since localized RNAs are typically found at low levels. Here we describe two protocols for the detection of axonally-localized mRNAs using a novel ultrasensitive RNA ISH technology. We have combined RNAscope ISH with axonal counterstain using fluorescence immunohistochemistry or histological dyes to verify the recruitment of Atf4 mRNA to axons in vivo in the mature mouse and human brains.

Detection of Axonally Localized mRNAs in Brain Sections Using High-Resolution In Situ Hybridization

RNA in situ hybridization (ISH) enables the visualization of RNAs in cells and tissues. Here we show how combination of RNAscope ISH with immunohistochemistry or histological dyes can be successfully used to detect mRNAs localized to axons in sections of mouse and human brains.

mRNAs are frequently localized to vertebrate axons and their local translation is required for axon pathfinding or branching during development and for ...

High-resolution Structural Magnetic Resonance Imaging of the Human Subcortex In Vivo and Postmortem

The focus of this study was to test the resolution limits of structural MRI of a postmortem brain compared to living human brains. The resolution of structural MRI in vivo is ultimately limited by physiological noise, including pulsation, respiration and head movement. Although imaging hardware continues to improve, it is still difficult to resolve structures on the millimeter scale. For example, the primary visual sensory pathways synapse at the lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN), a visual relay and control nucleus in the thalamus that normally is organized into six interleaved monocular layers. Neuroimaging studies have not been able to reliably distinguish these layers due their small size that are less than 1 mm thick.
The resolving limit of structural MRI, in a postmortem brain was tested using multiple images averaged over a long duration (~24 h). The purpose was to test whether it was possible to resolve the individual layers of the LGN in the absence of physiological noise. A proton density (PD)1 weighted pulse sequence was used with varying resolution and other parameters to determine the minimum number of images necessary to be registered and averaged to reliably distinguish the LGN and other subcortical regions. The results were also compared to images acquired in living human brains. In vivo subjects were scanned in order to determine the additional effects of physiological noise on the minimum number of PD scans needed to differentiate subcortical structures, useful in clinical applications.

High-resolution Structural Magnetic Resonance Imaging of the Human Subcortex In Vivo and Postmortem

Here we present a protocol to determine the minimum number images that needed to be registered and averaged to resolve subcortical structures and test whether the individual layers of the LGN could be resolved in the absence of physiological noise.

The focus of this study was to test the resolution limits of structural MRI of a postmortem brain compared to living human brains. The resolution of ...

High-Resolution Quantitative Immunogold Analysis of Membrane Receptors at Retinal Ribbon Synapses

Retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) receive excitatory glutamatergic input from bipolar cells. Synaptic excitation of RGCs is mediated postsynaptically by NMDA receptors (NMDARs) and AMPA receptors (AMPARs). Physiological data have indicated that glutamate receptors at RGCs are expressed not only in postsynaptic but also in perisynaptic or extrasynaptic membrane compartments. However, precise anatomical locations for glutamate receptors at RGC synapses have not been determined. Although a high-resolution quantitative analysis of glutamate receptors at central synapses is widely employed, this approach has had only limited success in the retina. We developed a postembedding immunogold method for analysis of membrane receptors, making it possible to estimate the number, density and variability of these receptors at retinal ribbon synapses. Here we describe the tools, reagents, and the practical steps that are needed for: 1) successful preparation of retinal fixation, 2) freeze-substitution, 3) postembedding immunogold electron microscope (EM) immunocytochemistry and, 4) quantitative visualization of glutamate receptors at ribbon synapses.

The postembedding immunogold method is one of the most effective ways to provide high-resolution analyses of the subcellular localization of specific molecules. Here we describe a protocol to quantitatively analyze glutamate receptors at retinal ribbon synapses.

Retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) receive excitatory glutamatergic input from bipolar cells. Synaptic excitation of RGCs is mediated postsynaptically by NMDA ...

Triggering Cell Stress and Death Using Conventional UV Laser Confocal Microscopy

Using a standard confocal setup, a UV ablation method can be utilized to selectively induce cellular injury and to visualize single-cell responses and cell-cell interactions in the CNS in real-time. Previously, studying these cell-specific responses after injury often required complicated setups or the transfer of cells or animals into different, non-physiological environments, confounding immediate and short-term analysis. For example, drug-mediated ablation approaches often lack the specificity that is required to study single-cell responses and immediate cell-cell interactions. Similarly, while high-power pulsed laser ablation approaches provide very good control and tissue penetration, they require specialized equipment that can complicate real-time visualization of cellular responses. The refined UV laser ablation approach described here allows researchers to stress or kill an individual cell in a dose- and time-dependent manner using a conventional confocal microscope equipped with a 405-nm laser. The method was applied to selectively ablate a single neuron within a dense network of surrounding cells in the zebrafish spinal cord. This approach revealed a dose-dependent response of the ablated neurons, causing the fragmentation of cellular bodies and anterograde degeneration along the axon within minutes to hours. This method allows researchers to study the fate of an individual dying cell and, importantly, the instant response of cells-such as microglia and astrocytes-surrounding the ablation site.

Targeted manipulations to cause directed stress or death in individual cells have been relatively difficult to accomplish. Here, a single-cell-resolution ablation approach to selectively stress and kill individual cells in cell culture and living animals is described based on a standard confocal UV laser.

Using a standard confocal setup, a UV ablation method can be utilized to selectively induce cellular injury and to visualize single-cell responses and ...

High Resolution Quantitative Synaptic Proteome Profiling of Mouse Brain Regions After Auditory Discrimination Learning

The molecular synaptic mechanisms underlying auditory learning and memory remain largely unknown. Here, the workflow of a proteomic study on auditory discrimination learning in mice is described. In this learning paradigm, mice are trained in a shuttle box Go/NoGo-task to discriminate between rising and falling frequency-modulated tones in order to avoid a mild electric foot-shock. The protocol involves the enrichment of synaptosomes from four brain areas, namely the auditory cortex, frontal cortex, hippocampus, and striatum, at different stages of training. Synaptic protein expression patterns obtained from trained mice are compared to na&#239;ve controls using a proteomic approach. To achieve sufficient analytical depth, samples are fractionated in three different ways prior to mass spectrometry, namely 1D SDS-PAGE/in-gel digestion, in-solution digestion and phospho-peptide enrichment. 
High-resolution proteomic analysis on a mass spectrometer and label-free quantification are used to examine synaptic protein profiles in phospho-peptide-depleted and phospho-peptide-enriched fractions of synaptosomal protein samples. A commercial software package is utilized to reveal proteins and phospho-peptides with significantly regulated relative synaptic abundance levels (trained/na&#239;ve controls). Common and differential regulation modes for the synaptic proteome in the investigated brain regions of mice after training were observed. Subsequently, meta-analyses utilizing several databases are employed to identify underlying cellular functions and biological pathways.

The identification of molecules and pathways controlling synaptic plasticity and memory is still a major challenge in neuroscience. Here, a workflow is described addressing the relative quantification of synaptic proteins supposedly involved in the molecular reorganization of synapses during learning and memory consolidation in an auditory learning paradigm.

The molecular synaptic mechanisms underlying auditory learning and memory remain largely unknown. Here, the workflow of a proteomic study on auditory ...