We would like to thank the Children&#8217;s Hospital at Montefiore, Department of Pediatrics, for providing support for these studies. We would like to thank the National Alopecia Areata Foundation for providing financial support for conducting studies with C3H/HeJ engrafted mice.

Ethics Statement: All studies involving animals must be approved by the IACUC of the institution (for the data which follows, protocols were approved by the Montefiore IACUC, protocol #11-6-240 and #13-7-100). Animals are provided light anesthesia as indicated for the sole purpose of keeping them still during photography, there are no painful procedures required for this protocol.
1. Acquisition of Photographs
<ol>
	<li>Set focus and field of view for gel imager using paper with printed text. Verify uniformity of light source across photographed region. To help ensure uniformity, use a gel imager with a built in light source for reflective photography. Do not use a transillumination light source, as this would create a silhouette of the animal which is unsuitable for further grayscale analysis. 
	NOTE: This will place the mouse slightly out of focus, which provides optical averaging across the region of interest (ROI) and will help reduce quantal errors for very small (i.e., &#60;10 pixel) regions of interest. Larger regions of interest will not be affected by this minor focusing adjustment, nor will they be affected by differences in the size of the animal.</li>
	<li>Anesthetize animals using ketamine (100 mg/ml)/xylazine (20 mg/ml) (2:1), as this provides rapid anesthesia effect and rapid recovery and is optimal for photographing multiple animals. 
	NOTE: Anesthesia is confirmed when the animal is still enough to permit photography. As animals typically recover from this light anesthesia within 10-15 min, the veterinarian has not recommended use of eye ointments.</li>
	<li>Place anesthetized animals on gel imager in vertical alignment (as close to parallel as possible).
	<ol>
		<li>For dorsal photographs, place the animals in prone position with limbs extended.</li>
		<li>For ventral photographs, place animals in the supine position, taking care that the animals are not laterally rotated.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Place grayscale standard in photographed region.</li>
	<li>Close access door. Important: Ambient light can introduce variations in exposure.</li>
	<li>Set F-stop to an exposure which places the region of interest within the linear range of acquisition (reading F-stop). 
	NOTE: Most systems will display where the image is saturated.</li>
	<li>Take photograph.</li>
	<li>Change F-stop to another exposure setting which places the region of interest within the linear range by increasing or decreasing the F-stop by 1, such that both the standard and the region of interest remain in a linear range of acquisition (reference F-stop).</li>
	<li>Take photograph.</li>
	<li>Once photography is completed, place animals on a warming table and monitor until they can maintain sternal recumbency. Return animals to their cages. Return the group of animals to the vivarium once all animals are fully recovered.</li>
</ol>
2. Quantification of Light Absorption
<ol>
	<li>Mark regions of interest on the images of the animals using provided software for gel imager.
	<ol>
		<li>For whole animal dorsal view, use a rectangular or oval image extending from the upper limbs to the lower limbs, extending laterally as much as possible such that no part of the box extends beyond the back of the animal as shown in Figure 1A. 
		NOTE: One could also mark the area of interest using a free-hand drawing tool.</li>
		<li>For whole animal ventral view, use 2 rectangles: one covering the pelvic region and one covering the chest area as shown in Figure 1B.</li>
		<li>For a smaller region of interest, i.e., location of drug administration, mark as appropriate.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Mark region(s) of interest on grayscale absorption standard.</li>
	<li>Record absorption from each of the marked regions of interest.</li>
</ol>
3. Analysis
Absorption levels obtained for the regions of interest may need to be normalized to the background standard for comparison between photographs. The relationship of exposure to absorption is log-log (i.e., the relationship is linear between log(exposure) and log(absorption)). Using this relationship, the absorption of the region of interest can be normalized to a standard background value, which will allow absorptions to be compared directly between different photographs, including those taken at different time points (i.e., serial measurements within a study protocol). The procedure for performing these corrections is detailed in optional steps 3.1 and 3.2.
<ol>
	<li>(Optional) Plot curve of log (exposure) vs. log(absorption) using values obtained from grayscale absorption standard.</li>
	<li>(Optional) Adjust for variations in the standard of each photograph as follows:
	<ol>
		<li>Select F-stop for reading (as determined in step 1.6) and F-stop for reference (as determined in step 1.8).</li>
		<li>Calculate average absorption of the standard in all photographs at the reading F-stop. This average is the Reference Standard Value (RSV).</li>
		<li>Calculate difference in absorption between the reading and reference F-stop settings in each photograph for the standard (delta-S) and for each defined ROI (delta-ROI-1, delta-ROI-2 &#8230;..delta-ROI-X)</li>
		<li>Calculate the corrected absorption for each ROI as follows: Corrected absorption (ROI-X) = Absorption (ROI-X) at reading F-stop + (RSV - absorption of standard at reading F-stop) * (delta-ROI-X /delta-S)</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Compile experimental data and perform data analysis using standard statistical techniques for continuous variables (i.e., ANOVA, T-test).</li>
</ol>

<ol>
	<li>McAndrews, P. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=American+Hair+Loss+Association.">American Hair Loss Association.</a> , (2011).</li><li>Safavi, K. H., Muller, S. A., Suman, V. J., Moshell, A. N., Melton, L. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Incidence+of+alopecia+areata+in+Olmsted+County,+Minnesota,+1975+through+1989.">Incidence of alopecia areata in Olmsted County, Minnesota, 1975 through 1989.</a> Mayo Clin Proc. 70 (7), 628-633 (1995).</li><li>Hussein, A. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Chemotherapy-induced+alopecia:+new+developments.">Chemotherapy-induced alopecia: new developments.</a> South Med J. 86 (5), 489-496 (1993).</li><li>Trueb, R. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Chemotherapy-induced+hair+loss.">Chemotherapy-induced hair loss.</a> Skin Therapy Lett. 15 (7), 5-7 (2010).</li><li>Sato, N., Leopold, P. L., Crystal, R. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Effect+of+adenovirus-mediated+expression+of+Sonic+hedgehog+gene+on+hair+regrowth+in+mice+with+chemotherapy-induced+alopecia.">Effect of adenovirus-mediated expression of Sonic hedgehog gene on hair regrowth in mice with chemotherapy-induced alopecia.</a> J Natl Cancer Inst. 93 (24), 1858-1864 (2001).</li><li>McGarvey, E. L., Baum, L. D., Pinkerton, R. C., Rogers, L. 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J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Alopecia:+effect+on+cancer+patients'+body+image.">Alopecia: effect on cancer patients' body image.</a> Cancer Nurs. 7 (6), 499-503 (1984).</li><li>Stough, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Psychological+effect,+pathophysiology,+and+management+of+androgenetic+alopecia+in+men.">Psychological effect, pathophysiology, and management of androgenetic alopecia in men.</a> Mayo Clin Proc. 80 (10), 1316-1322 (2005).</li><li>Ogunmakin, K. O., Rashid, R. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Alopecia:+the+case+for+medical+necessity.">Alopecia: the case for medical necessity.</a> Skinmed. 9 (2), 79-84 (2011).</li><li>Olsen, E. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+randomized+clinical+trial+of+5%+topical+minoxidil+versus+2%+topical+minoxidil+and+placebo+in+the+treatment+of+androgenetic+alopecia+in+men.">A randomized clinical trial of 5% topical minoxidil versus 2% topical minoxidil and placebo in the treatment of androgenetic alopecia in men.</a> J Am Acad Dermatol. 47 (3), 377-385 (2002).</li><li>Rossi, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=1+mg+daily+administration+on+male+androgenetic+alopecia+in+different+age+groups:+10-year+follow-up.">1 mg daily administration on male androgenetic alopecia in different age groups: 10-year follow-up.</a> Dermatol Ther. 24 (4), 455-461 (2011).</li><li>Gibbons, R. D., Fiedler-Weiss, V. 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P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Methods+of+evaluating+hair+growth.">Methods of evaluating hair growth.</a> Australas J Dermatol. 44 (1), 10-18 (2003).</li><li>. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> The Kodak/Tiffen Q-13 Gray Scale*. , .</li><li>Freyschmidt-Paul, P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Treatment+of+alopecia+areata+in+C3H/HeJ+mice+with+the+topical+immunosuppressant+FK506+(Tacrolimus).">Treatment of alopecia areata in C3H/HeJ mice with the topical immunosuppressant FK506 (Tacrolimus).</a> Eur J Dermatol. 11 (5), 405-409 (2001).</li><li>Katikaneni, R., Ponnapakkam, T., Matsushita, O., Sakon, J., Gensure, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Treatment+and+prevention+of+chemotherapy-induced+alopecia+with+PTH-CBD,+a+collagen-targeted+parathyroid+hormone+analog,+in+a+non-depilated+mouse+model.">Treatment and prevention of chemotherapy-induced alopecia with PTH-CBD, a collagen-targeted parathyroid hormone analog, in a non-depilated mouse model.</a> Anticancer Drugs. 25 (1), 30-38 (2014).</li><li>Peters, E. M., Foitzik, K., Paus, R., Ray, S., Holick, M. F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+new+strategy+for+modulating+chemotherapy-induced+alopecia,+using+PTH/PTHrP+receptor+agonist+and+antagonist.">A new strategy for modulating chemotherapy-induced alopecia, using PTH/PTHrP receptor agonist and antagonist.</a> J Invest Dermatol. 117 (2), 173-178 (2001).</li><li>Katikaneni, R., Ponnapakkam, T., Seymour, A., Sakon, J., Gensure, R. 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Authors have nothing to disclose.

In this report a detailed description is provided of a new technique for quantifying hair loss in rodents. This technique utilizes a gel imager for image acquisition and analysis, equipment which is readily available in most laboratories. The measurements have been shown to be robust to minor variations in technique (Figures 4-5), and are well-correlated to the degree of visual hair loss in treatment models (Figure 6). These techniques have been successfully employed in ...

Alopecia (hair loss) can be a psychologically and emotionally distressing event with multiple causes. Male-pattern baldness is the most common cause of alopecia, affecting approximately two thirds of males by age 351. A similar pattern of hair loss can be observed in females with polycystic ovarian syndrome. In both of these disorders, the hair loss is androgen mediated. Alopecia can also occur as an autoimmune disease, alopecia areata, which affects 1.7% of the population2.&#160; Alopecia can occur as a side-effect of some medical treatments, such as chemotherapy3.&#160; A high percentage (65-85%) of chemotherapy patients experience some degree of alopecia4,5. The psychological consequences of hair loss have been well studied in the chemotherapy setting. Chemotherapy-induced alopecia can result in anxiety, depression, a negative body image, lowered self-esteem and a reduced sense of well-being6,7. A high percentage (47-58%) of female cancer patients consider hair loss to be the most traumatic aspect of chemotherapy, and up to 8% decline treatment for fear of hair loss4,6. There is also evidence in androgenic alopecia to support therapy to reduce psychological and even medical consequences of hair loss8,9. Likewise, alopecia areata has been reported to have severe psychological consequences2, and the patchy nature of the hair loss can lead to a more unpleasant cosmetic result than most other causes of hair loss.
While drugs with mild anti-androgenic effects (i.e., spironolactone) had been used with limited success as therapy for alopecia, the first effective medication for alopecia was minoxidil10. This antihypertensive has an observed side-effect of causing hair growth, and is now used as topical therapy for many forms of alopecia. However, responses are often incomplete, with some subjects showing only slowing of hair loss rather than actual regrowth10. Finasteride is a competitive antagonist to type II 5&#945;-reductase which blocks conversion of testosterone to dihydrotestosterone, resulting in improvements in androgenic alopecia at the expense of partial systemic androgen blockade. Response rates with long-term (10 years) therapy are around 50%11. Overall, despite considerable research in this area, there is still no adequate therapy for hair loss.
For decades, scientists and clinicians have examined methods of measuring scalp hair growth in clinical trials. With the development of drugs that treat alopecia, there has been a greater need for reliable, economical and minimally invasive means of measuring hair growth and, specifically, response to therapy. Image analysis technology for a precise quantification of hair density in patients with hair loss disorders yielded consistent and valid results in the past using a variety of techniques, including analysis of digitized images12, image analysis of individual hairs and skin lesions13, and microscopic scanning to quantify hair mass in a defined scalp region14 .
Unfortunately, while the above methodologies have provided improved assessment of efficacy for hair growth-promoting interventions in clinical trials, these methods have not been applied to rodent studies in preclinical investigations. Our goal is to develop a consistent and reliable method to quantify hair loss in mice, which will allow investigators to more accurately assess and compare new therapeutic approaches for various forms of alopecia. We have developed a methodology using equipment readily available in most laboratories which will allow rapid and reliable quantification of hair density in mice with brown or black hair. This methodology has been tested in mouse models of chemotherapy-induced alopecia, alopecia areata, and alopecia from waxing. A detailed protocol is presented for performing these measurements, including validation data from C57BL/6 and C3H/HeJ strains of mice. As this technique relies on detecting light absorption from pigments in the hair shaft, it cannot be used to detect hair growth in white mice or albino mice.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="623">
	<tbody>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">Name of Material/ Equipment</td>
			<td style="width:121px;">Company</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">Catalog Number</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">Comments/Description</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="105">
			<td height="105" style="height:105px;width:216px;">KODAK Gel Logic 100 Imaging System&#160;&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:121px;">Eastman Kodak Company, Rochester, NY, USA</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td style="width:167px;">Gel imager for obtaining and analyzing photographs, must have built in light source for reflective photography.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="84">
			<td height="84" style="height:84px;">The Kodak/Tiffen Q-13 Gray Scale</td>
			<td style="width:121px;">Imatest, http://www.imatest.com/docs/q13/</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td style="width:167px;">Greyscale standard</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="63">
			<td height="63" style="height:63px;width:216px;">C57BL/6J Mice</td>
			<td style="width:121px;">&#160;Jackson Laboratories, Bar Harbor, Maine</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td style="width:167px;">Mice for representative study</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="63">
			<td height="63" style="height:63px;width:216px;">C3H/HeJ engrafted mouse</td>
			<td style="width:121px;">&#160;Jackson Laboratories, Bar Harbor, Maine</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td style="width:167px;">Mice for representative study</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

a new technique for quantitative analysis of hair loss in mice using grayscale analysis

Alopecia is a common form of hair loss which can occur in many different conditions, including male-pattern hair loss, polycystic ovarian syndrome, and alopecia areata. Alopecia can also occur as a side effect of chemotherapy in cancer patients. In this study, our goal was to develop a consistent and reliable method to quantify hair loss in mice, which will allow investigators to accurately assess and compare new therapeutic approaches for these various forms of alopecia. The method utilizes a standard gel imager to obtain and process images of mice, measuring the light absorption, which occurs in rough proportion to the amount of black (or gray) hair on the mouse. Data that has been quantified in this fashion can then be analyzed using standard statistical techniques (i.e., ANOVA, T-test). This methodology was tested in mouse models of chemotherapy-induced alopecia, alopecia areata and alopecia from waxing. In this report, the detailed protocol is presented for performing these measurements, including validation data from C57BL/6 and C3H/HeJ strains of mice. This new technique offers a number of advantages, including relative simplicity of application, reliance on equipment which is readily available in most research laboratories, and applying an objective, quantitative assessment which is more robust than subjective evaluations. Improvements in quantification of hair growth in mice will improve study of alopecia models and facilitate evaluation of promising new therapies in preclinical studies.

This technique was validated using C3H/HeJ engrafted mice, the mouse model of alopecia areata16. These animals develop global hair loss which progresses gradually over time. However, the hair loss occurs in patches, and may vary from one mouse to the next, introducing considerable variability and hampering qualitative assessments. This model provided an opportunity to test correlations between measurements of optical density at different locations on the mouse as an assessment of validity.
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A New Technique for Quantitative Analysis of Hair Loss in Mice Using Grayscale Analysis

Alopecia is a common form of hair loss which can occur in many different conditions, including as a side-effect of chemotherapy. We have developed a method to quantify hair loss in mice, utilizing a standard gel imager to perform a grayscale analysis, to facilitate study of promising new alopecia therapies.

Alopecia is a common form of hair loss which can occur in many different conditions, including male-pattern hair loss, polycystic ovarian syndrome, and ...

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8.9K Views.  Children's Hospital at Montefiore. Alopecia is a common form of hair loss which can occur in many different conditions, including as a side-effect of chemotherapy. We have developed a method to quantify hair loss in mice, utilizing a standard gel imager to perform a grayscale analysis, to facilitate study of promising new alopecia therapies.

Video: A New Technique for Quantitative Analysis of Hair Loss in Mice Using Grayscale Analysis

A Neuronal and Astrocyte Co-Culture Assay for High Content Analysis of Neurotoxicity

High Content Analysis (HCA) assays combine cells and detection reagents with automated imaging and powerful image analysis algorithms, allowing measurement of multiple cellular phenotypes within a single assay. In this study, we utilized HCA to develop a novel assay for neurotoxicity. Neurotoxicity assessment represents an important part of drug safety evaluation, as well as being a significant focus of environmental protection efforts. Additionally, neurotoxicity is also a well-accepted in vitro marker of the development of neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases. Recently, the application of HCA to neuronal screening has been reported. By labeling neuronal cells with &beta;III-tubulin, HCA assays can provide high-throughput, non-subjective, quantitative measurements of parameters such as neuronal number, neurite count and neurite length, all of which can indicate neurotoxic effects. However, the role of astrocytes remains unexplored in these models. Astrocytes have an integral role in the maintenance of central nervous system (CNS) homeostasis, and are associated with both neuroprotection and neurodegradation when they are activated in response to toxic substances or disease states. GFAP is an intermediate filament protein expressed predominantly in the astrocytes of the CNS. Astrocytic activation (gliosis) leads to the upregulation of GFAP, commonly accompanied by astrocyte proliferation and hypertrophy. This process of reactive gliosis has been proposed as an early marker of damage to the nervous system. The traditional method for GFAP quantitation is by immunoassay. This approach is limited by an inability to provide information on cellular localization, morphology and cell number. We determined that HCA could be used to overcome these limitations and to simultaneously measure multiple features associated with gliosis - changes in GFAP expression, astrocyte hypertrophy, and astrocyte proliferation - within a single assay. In co-culture studies, astrocytes have been shown to protect neurons against several types of toxic insult and to critically influence neuronal survival. Recent studies have suggested that the use of astrocytes in an in vitro neurotoxicity test system may prove more relevant to human CNS structure and function than neuronal cells alone. Accordingly, we have developed an HCA assay for co-culture of neurons and astrocytes, comprised of protocols and validated, target-specific detection reagents for profiling &beta;III-tubulin and glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP). This assay enables simultaneous analysis of neurotoxicity, neurite outgrowth, gliosis, neuronal and astrocytic morphology and neuronal and astrocytic development in a wide variety of cellular models, representing a novel, non-subjective, high-throughput assay for neurotoxicity assessment. The assay holds great potential for enhanced detection of neurotoxicity and improved productivity in neuroscience research and drug discovery.

This article describes a novel protocol and reagent set designed for sensitive measurement of neurotoxic effects of compounds and treatments on co-cultures of neurons and astrocytes using high content analysis. Results demonstrate that high content analysis represents an exciting novel technology for neurotoxicity assessment.

High Content Analysis (HCA) assays combine cells and detection reagents with automated imaging and powerful image analysis algorithms, allowing ...

Live-cell Imaging and Quantitative Analysis of Embryonic Epithelial Cells in Xenopus laevis

Embryonic epithelial cells serve as an ideal model to study morphogenesis where multi-cellular tissues undergo changes in their geometry, such as changes in cell surface area and cell height, and where cells undergo mitosis and migrate. Furthermore, epithelial cells can also regulate morphogenetic movements in adjacent tissues1. A traditional method to study epithelial cells and tissues involve chemical fixation and histological methods to determine cell morphology or localization of particular proteins of interest. These approaches continue to be useful and provide "snapshots" of cell shapes and tissue architecture, however, much remains to be understood about how cells acquire specific shapes, how various proteins move or localize to specific positions, and what paths cells follow toward their final differentiated fate. High resolution live imaging complements traditional methods and also allows more direct investigation into the dynamic cellular processes involved in the formation, maintenance, and morphogenesis of multicellular epithelial sheets. Here we demonstrate experimental methods from the isolation of animal cap tissues from Xenopus laevis embryos to confocal imaging of epithelial cells and simple measurement approaches that together can augment molecular and cellular studies of epithelial morphogenesis.

Live-cell Imaging and Quantitative Analysis of Embryonic Epithelial Cells in Xenopus laevis

Xenopus embryonic epithelia are an ideal model system to study cell behaviors such as polarity development and shape change during epithelial morphogenesis. Traditional histology of fixed samples is increasingly being complemented by live-cell confocal imaging. Here we demonstrate methods to isolate frog tissues and visualize live epithelial cells and their cytoskeleton using live-cell confocal microscopy.

Embryonic epithelial cells serve as an ideal model to study morphogenesis where multi-cellular tissues undergo changes in their geometry, such as changes ...

Quantitative Live Cell Fluorescence-microscopy Analysis of Fission Yeast

Several microscopy techniques are available today that can detect a specific protein within the cell. During the last decade live cell imaging using fluorochromes like Green Fluorescent Protein (GFP) directly attached to the protein of interest has become increasingly popular 1. Using GFP and similar fluorochromes the subcellular localisations and movements of proteins can be detected in a fluorescent microscope. Moreover, also the subnuclear localisation of a certain region of a chromosome can be studied using this technique. GFP is fused to the Lac Repressor protein (LacR) and ectopically expressed in the cell where tandem repeats of the lacO sequence has been inserted into the region of interest on the chromosome2. The LacR-GFP will bind to the lacO repeats and that area of the genome will be visible as a green dot in the fluorescence microscope. Yeast is especially suited for this type of manipulation since homologous recombination is very efficient and thereby enables targeted integration of the lacO repeats and engineered fusion proteins with GFP 3. Here we describe a quantitative method for live cell analysis of fission yeast. Additional protocols for live cell analysis of fission yeast can be found, for example on how to make a movie of the meiotic chromosomal behaviour 4. In this particular experiment we focus on subnuclear organisation and how it is affected during gene induction. We have labelled a gene cluster, named Chr1, by the introduction of lacO binding sites in the vicinity of the genes. The gene cluster is enriched for genes that are induced early during nitrogen starvation of fission yeast 5. In the strain the nuclear membrane (NM) is labelled by the attachment of mCherry to the NM protein Cut11 giving rise to a red fluorescent signal. The Spindle Pole body (SPB) compound Sid4 is fused to Red Fluorescent Protein (Sid4-mRFP) 6. In vegetatively growing yeast cells the centromeres are always attached to the SPB that is embedded in the NM 7. The SPB is identified as a large round structure in the NM. By imaging before and 20 minutes after depletion of the nitrogen source we can determine the distance between the gene cluster (GFP) and the NM/SPB. The mean or median distances before and after nitrogen depletion are compared and we can thus quantify whether or not there is a shift in subcellular localisation of the gene cluster after nitrogen depletion.

The fission yeast, Schizosaccharomyces pombe, is a good model system to study basic cellular processes. Here we describe a method to perform quantitative live cell analysis of fission yeast. In this particular experiment we focus on organisation of the genome within the cell nucleus, but the method can also be used to study cytosolic factors.

Several microscopy techniques are available today that can detect a specific protein within the cell. During the last decade live cell imaging using ...

Quantitative Analysis of Random Migration of Cells Using Time-lapse Video Microscopy

Cell migration is a dynamic process, which is important for embryonic development, tissue repair, immune system function, and tumor invasion 1, 2. During directional migration, cells move rapidly in response to an extracellular chemotactic signal, or in response to intrinsic cues 3 provided by the basic motility machinery. Random migration occurs when a cell possesses low intrinsic directionality, allowing the cells to explore their local environment.
Cell migration is a complex process, in the initial response cell undergoes polarization and extends protrusions in the direction of migration 2. Traditional methods to measure migration such as the Boyden chamber migration assay is an easy method to measure chemotaxis in vitro, which allows measuring migration as an end point result. However, this approach neither allows measurement of individual migration parameters, nor does it allow to visualization of morphological changes that cell undergoes during migration.
Here, we present a method that allows us to monitor migrating cells in real time using video - time lapse microscopy. Since cell migration and invasion are hallmarks of cancer, this method will be applicable in studying cancer cell migration and invasion in vitro. Random migration of platelets has been considered as one of the parameters of platelet function 4, hence this method could also be helpful in studying platelet functions. This assay has the advantage of being rapid, reliable, reproducible, and does not require optimization of cell numbers. In order to maintain physiologically suitable conditions for cells, the microscope is equipped with CO2 supply and temperature thermostat. Cell movement is monitored by taking pictures using a camera fitted to the microscope at regular intervals. Cell migration can be calculated by measuring average speed and average displacement, which is calculated by Slidebook software.

This method allows monitoring of cells in real time and quantitative measurements of different cell migration parameters such as speed, displacement, and velocity. Unlike the traditional methods, this real time approach is not based on endpoint quantitative migration measurements; instead it allows monitoring and calculating different parameters continuously.

Cell migration is a dynamic process, which is important for embryonic development, tissue repair, immune system function, and tumor invasion 1, 2. During ...

A Quantitative Fitness Analysis Workflow

Quantitative Fitness Analysis (QFA) is an experimental and computational workflow for comparing fitnesses of microbial cultures grown in parallel1,2,3,4. QFA can be applied to focused observations of single cultures but is most useful for genome-wide genetic interaction or drug screens investigating up to thousands of independent cultures. The central experimental method is the inoculation of independent, dilute liquid microbial cultures onto solid agar plates which are incubated and regularly photographed. Photographs from each time-point are analyzed, producing quantitative cell density estimates, which are used to construct growth curves, allowing quantitative fitness measures to be derived. Culture fitnesses can be compared to quantify and rank genetic interaction strengths or drug sensitivities. The effect on culture fitness of any treatments added into substrate agar (e.g. small molecules, antibiotics or nutrients) or applied to plates externally (e.g. UV irradiation, temperature) can be quantified by QFA.
The QFA workflow produces growth rate estimates analogous to those obtained by spectrophotometric measurement of parallel liquid cultures in 96-well or 200-well plate readers. Importantly, QFA has significantly higher throughput compared with such methods. QFA cultures grow on a solid agar surface and are therefore well aerated during growth without the need for stirring or shaking.
QFA throughput is not as high as that of some Synthetic Genetic Array (SGA) screening methods5,6. However, since QFA cultures are heavily diluted before being inoculated onto agar, QFA can capture more complete growth curves, including exponential and saturation phases3. For example, growth curve observations allow culture doubling times to be estimated directly with high precision, as discussed previously1.
Here we present a specific QFA protocol applied to thousands of S. cerevisiae cultures which are automatically handled by robots during inoculation, incubation and imaging. Any of these automated steps can be replaced by an equivalent, manual procedure, with an associated reduction in throughput, and we also present a lower throughput manual protocol. The same QFA software tools can be applied to images captured in either workflow.
We have extensive experience applying QFA to cultures of the budding yeast S. cerevisiae but we expect that QFA will prove equally useful for examining cultures of the fission yeast S. pombe and bacterial cultures.

Quantitative Fitness Analysis (QFA) is a complementary series of experimental and computational methods for estimating microbial culture fitnesses. QFA estimates the effect of genetic mutations, drugs or other applied treatments on microbe growth. Experiments scaling from focussed analysis of single cultures to thousands of parallel cultures can be designed.

Quantitative Fitness Analysis (QFA) is an experimental and computational workflow for comparing fitnesses of microbial cultures grown in parallel1,2,3,4. ...

Rapid Genetic Analysis of Epithelial-Mesenchymal Signaling During Hair Regeneration

Hair follicle morphogenesis, a complex process requiring interaction between epithelia-derived keratinocytes and the underlying mesenchyme, is an attractive model system to study organ development and tissue-specific signaling. Although hair follicle development is genetically tractable, fast and reproducible analysis of factors essential for this process remains a challenge. Here we describe a procedure to generate targeted overexpression or shRNA-mediated knockdown of factors using lentivirus in a tissue-specific manner. Using a modified version of a hair regeneration model 5, 6, 11, we can achieve robust gain- or loss-of-function analysis in primary mouse keratinocytes or dermal cells to facilitate study of epithelial-mesenchymal signaling pathways that lead to hair follicle morphogenesis. We describe how to isolate fresh primary mouse keratinocytes and dermal cells, which contain dermal papilla cells and their precursors, deliver lentivirus containing either shRNA or cDNA to one of the cell populations, and combine the cells to generate fully formed hair follicles on the backs of nude mice. This approach allows analysis of tissue-specific factors required to generate hair follicles within three weeks and provides a fast and convenient companion to existing genetic models.

Tissue-specific analysis of a hair follicle regeneration model using lentivirus to mediate gain- or loss-of-function.

Hair follicle morphogenesis, a complex process requiring interaction between epithelia-derived keratinocytes and the underlying mesenchyme, is an ...

Quantitative Analysis of Autophagy using Advanced 3D Fluorescence Microscopy

Prostate cancer is the leading form of malignancies among men in the U.S. While surgery carries a significant risk of impotence and incontinence, traditional chemotherapeutic approaches have been largely unsuccessful. Hormone therapy is effective at early stage, but often fails with the eventual development of hormone-refractory tumors. We have been interested in developing therapeutics targeting specific metabolic deficiency of tumor cells. We recently showed that prostate tumor cells specifically lack an enzyme (argininosuccinate synthase, or ASS) involved in the synthesis of the amino acid arginine1. This condition causes the tumor cells to become dependent on exogenous arginine, and they undergo metabolic stress when free arginine is depleted by arginine deiminase (ADI)1,10. Indeed, we have shown that human prostate cancer cells CWR22Rv1 are effectively killed by ADI with caspase-independent apoptosis and aggressive autophagy (or macroautophagy)1,2,3. Autophagy is an evolutionarily-conserved process that allows cells to metabolize unwanted proteins by lysosomal breakdown during nutritional starvation4,5. Although the essential components of this pathway are well-characterized6,7,8,9, many aspects of the molecular mechanism are still unclear - in particular, what is the role of autophagy in the death-response of prostate cancer cells after ADI treatment? In order to address this question, we required an experimental method to measure the level and extent of autophagic response in cells - and since there are no known molecular markers that can accurately track this process, we chose to develop an imaging-based approach, using quantitative 3D fluorescence microscopy11,12.
Using CWR22Rv1 cells specifically-labeled with fluorescent probes for autophagosomes and lysosomes, we show that 3D image stacks acquired with either widefield deconvolution microscopy (and later, with super-resolution, structured-illumination microscopy) can clearly capture the early stages of autophagy induction. With commercially available digital image analysis applications, we can readily obtain statistical information about autophagosome and lysosome number, size, distribution, and degree of colocalization from any imaged cell. This information allows us to precisely track the progress of autophagy in living cells and enables our continued investigation into the role of autophagy in cancer chemotherapy.

Autophagy is a ubiquitous process that enables cells to degrade and recycle proteins and organelles. We apply advanced fluorescence microscopy to visualize and quantify the small, but essential, physical changes associated with the induction of autophagy, including the formation and distribution of autophagosomes and lysosomes, and their fusion into autolysosomes.

Prostate cancer is the leading form of malignancies among men in the U.S. While surgery carries a significant risk of impotence and incontinence, ...

Visualization and Analysis of mRNA Molecules Using Fluorescence In Situ Hybridization in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

The Fluorescence in situ Hybridization (FISH) method allows one to detect nucleic acids in the native cellular environment. Here we provide a protocol for using FISH to quantify the number of mRNAs in single yeast cells. Cells can be grown in any condition of interest and then fixed and made permeable. Subsequently, multiple single-stranded deoxyoligonucleotides conjugated to fluorescent dyes are used to label and visualize mRNAs. Diffraction-limited fluorescence from single mRNA molecules is quantified using a spot-detection algorithm to identify and count the number of mRNAs per cell. While the more standard quantification methods of northern blots, RT-PCR and gene expression microarrays provide information on average mRNAs in the bulk population, FISH facilitates both the counting and localization of these mRNAs in single cells at single-molecule resolution.

Visualization and Analysis of mRNA Molecules Using Fluorescence In Situ Hybridization in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

This protocol describes an experimental procedure for performing Fluorescence in situ Hybridization (FISH) for counting mRNAs in single cells at single-molecule resolution.

The Fluorescence in situ Hybridization (FISH) method allows one to detect nucleic acids in the native cellular environment. Here we provide a protocol for ...

Extraction and Analysis of Cortisol from Human and Monkey Hair

The stress hormone cortisol (CORT) is slowly incorporated into the growing hair shaft of humans, nonhuman primates, and other mammals. We developed and validated a method for CORT extraction and analysis from rhesus monkey hair and subsequently adapted this method for use with human scalp hair. In contrast to CORT &#34;point samples&#34; obtained from plasma or saliva, hair CORT provides an integrated measure of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical (HPA) system activity, and thus physiological stress, during the period of hormone incorporation. Because human scalp hair grows at an average rate of 1 cm/month, CORT levels obtained from hair segments several cm in length can potentially serve as a biomarker of stress experienced over a number of months.
In our method, each hair sample is first washed twice in isopropanol to remove any CORT from the outside of the hair shaft that has been deposited from sweat or sebum. After drying, the sample is ground to a fine powder to break up the hair&#39;s protein matrix and increase the surface area for extraction. CORT from the interior of the hair shaft is extracted into methanol, the methanol is evaporated, and the extract is reconstituted in assay buffer. Extracted CORT, along with standards and quality controls, is then analyzed by means of a sensitive and specific commercially available enzyme immunoassay (EIA) kit. Readout from the EIA is converted to pg CORT per mg powdered hair weight. This method has been used in our laboratory to analyze hair CORT in humans, several species of macaque monkeys, marmosets, dogs, and polar bears. Many studies both from our lab and from other research groups have demonstrated the broad applicability of hair CORT for assessing chronic stress exposure in natural as well as laboratory settings.

Cortisol (CORT) accumulates in the growing hair shaft of humans and nonhuman primates. We describe methods for extracting and analyzing hair CORT with high precision and sensitivity. Measurement of hair CORT is particularly well-suited for assessing chronic stress over periods of weeks to months.

The stress hormone cortisol (CORT) is slowly incorporated into the growing hair shaft of humans, nonhuman primates, and other mammals. We developed and ...

A New Approach for the Comparative Analysis of Multiprotein Complexes Based on 15N Metabolic Labeling and Quantitative Mass Spectrometry

The introduced protocol provides a tool for the analysis of multiprotein complexes in the thylakoid membrane, by revealing insights into complex composition under different conditions. In this protocol the approach is demonstrated by comparing the composition of the protein complex responsible for cyclic electron flow (CEF) in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, isolated from genetically different strains. The procedure comprises the isolation of thylakoid membranes, followed by their separation into multiprotein complexes by sucrose density gradient centrifugation, SDS-PAGE, immunodetection and comparative, quantitative mass spectrometry (MS) based on differential metabolic labeling (14N/15N) of the analyzed strains. Detergent solubilized thylakoid membranes are loaded on sucrose density gradients at equal chlorophyll concentration. After ultracentrifugation, the gradients are separated into fractions, which are analyzed by mass-spectrometry based on equal volume. This approach allows the investigation of the composition within the gradient fractions and moreover to analyze the migration behavior of different proteins, especially focusing on ANR1, CAS, and PGRL1. Furthermore, this method is demonstrated by confirming the results with immunoblotting and additionally by supporting the findings from previous studies (the identification and PSI-dependent migration of proteins that were previously described to be part of the CEF-supercomplex such as PGRL1, FNR, and cyt f). Notably, this approach is applicable to address a broad range of questions for which this protocol can be adopted and e.g. used for comparative analyses of multiprotein complex composition isolated from distinct environmental conditions.

A New Approach for the Comparative Analysis of Multiprotein Complexes Based on 15N Metabolic Labeling and Quantitative Mass Spectrometry

The described comparative, quantitative proteomic approach aims at obtaining insights into the composition of multiprotein complexes&#160;under different conditions and is demonstrated by comparing genetically different strains. For quantitative analysis equal volumes of different fractions from a sucrose density gradient are mixed and analyzed by mass spectrometry.