All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.
1. Instrument settings and probe selection
NOTE: Lung POCUS can be performed with a multitude of transducers depending on what question needs to be answered.
<ol>
	<li>Superficial lung investigation
	<ol>
		<li>For the evaluation of abnormalities that have manifestations superficially (e.g., pneumothorax or pleural line abnormalities), perform lung POCUS using a linear high-frequency (5-10 MHz) probe, with the focal zone set at the pleural line. If a linear high-frequency probe is unavailable, perform superficial lung ultrasound using a low-frequency probe (see section 1.2), although the spatial resolution will be lower, which increases the chances of ambiguous or difficult-to-interpret findings.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Deep lung investigation
	<ol>
		<li>Use a low-frequency (&#8804;5 MHz) ultrasound probe for the evaluation of anything deeper than the interface of the visceral and parietal pleurae. Ensure that the low-frequency probe has a footprint small enough to fit in between the rib spaces (e.g., a convex array, a micro-convex array, or a linear phased-array sector arc probe). 
		NOTE: The linear phased-array sector arc probe is often colloquially referred to as a &#34;phased-array probe&#34;. However, this term is misleading, because all modern ultrasound transducers (including linear high-frequency probes) use phasing to steer the ultrasound beam13,14. For the sake of brevity, the linear phased-array sector arc probe is referred to as a &#34;sector probe.&#34;</li>
		<li>Preset the machine as follows: abdomen (or lung if there is no abdomen option), varying depth (6-20 cm, depending on the object of interest), harmonic imaging disabled, and indicator to the left of the screen. Perform most of the study in a two-dimensional (2D), grayscale mode called brightness mode (B-mode). 
		&#8203;NOTE: Other ultrasound modes such as motion mode (M-mode) and color doppler (CD) can occasionally provide additional information and may be used when screening for certain pathologic states.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
2. Patient positioning
<ol>
	<li>Supine versus sitting
	<ol>
		<li>Perform the studies with the patient sitting up or supine.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Delimitation of the imaging regions
	<ol>
		<li>Divide each hemi-thorax into three regions, reflecting the anatomic segmentation of the lungs (Figure 115). In the left chest, treat the lingula as the left-sided analog of the right middle lobe.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
3. Scanning technique
<ol>
	<li>Apply ultrasound gel to the transducer.</li>
	<li>Scanning the right hemithorax
	<ol>
		<li>R1: right upper lobe (anterior lung zone) (Figure 215)
		<ol>
			<li>Place the probe in the mid-clavicular line in the 1st-3rd intercostal spaces (ICSs). Position the probe in the parasagittal orientation, with the indicator mark pointing cranially.</li>
			<li>Axis: Center on the pleural line so that the cranial and caudal rib shadows are visible on the edges of the images.</li>
			<li>Depth: If the dominant pattern is A-lines (see &#34;Normal lung ultrasound findings&#34; in the representative results section) with &#8804; two B-lines (see &#34;Pathologic lung POCUS findings&#34; in the representative results section), decrease the depth so that only a single A-line is visible. If there are &#62;three B-lines, increase the depth until at least three A-lines are visible. 
			NOTE: B-lines are vertical hyperechoic artifacts that arise from the pleural line, become wider from superficial to deep, reach the deepest visible portion of the ultrasound screen, and efface the A-lines where the two intersect.</li>
			<li>Overall gain: Adjust the gain until the pleural line and A-lines are visible as distinctly echogenic (bright) lines and the spaces between the pleural line and A-lines are hypoechoic (dark).</li>
			<li>Click on acquire.</li>
		</ol>
		</li>
		<li>R2: right middle lobe (antero-lateral lung zone) (Figure 315)
		<ol>
			<li>Place the probe in the anterior axillary line in the 4th-5th ICSs. Position the probe midway between the parasagittal and coronal orientations, with the indicator mark pointing cranially.</li>
			<li>Axis: See step 3.2.1.2.</li>
			<li>Depth: See step 3.2.1.3.</li>
			<li>Overall gain: See step 3.2.1.4.</li>
			<li>Click on acquire.</li>
		</ol>
		</li>
		<li>R3: right lower lobe (posterior-lateral lung zone) (Figure 415)
		<ol>
			<li>Place the probe in the mid-to-posterior axillary line in the 5th-7th ICSs. Position the probe in the coronal plane with the indicator mark pointing cranially.</li>
			<li>Axis: Center on the diaphragm such that both the sub-diaphragmatic and supra-diaphragmatic structures are visible at the same time.</li>
			<li>Depth: Increase the depth until the sub-diaphragmatic spine is visible.</li>
			<li>Overall gain: Increase the gain until the liver/spleen appears slightly hyperechoic.</li>
			<li>Click on acquire.</li>
		</ol>
		</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Scanning the left hemithorax
	<ol>
		<li>L1: left upper lobe (anterior lung zone)
		<ol>
			<li>Probe positioning: See step 3.2.1.1.</li>
			<li>Axis: See step 3.2.1.2.</li>
			<li>Depth: See step 3.2.1.3.</li>
			<li>Overall gain: See step 3.2.1.4.</li>
			<li>Click on acquire.</li>
		</ol>
		</li>
		<li>L2: lingula of the left upper lobe (lateral lung zone)
		<ol>
			<li>Probe positioning: See step 3.2.2.1.</li>
			<li>Axis: See step 3.2.1.2.</li>
			<li>Depth: See step 3.2.1.3.</li>
			<li>Overall gain: See step 3.2.1.4.</li>
			<li>Click on acquire.</li>
		</ol>
		</li>
		<li>L3: left lower lobe (postero-lateral lung zone)
		<ol>
			<li>Probe positioning: See step 3.2.3.1.</li>
			<li>Axis: See step 3.2.3.2.</li>
			<li>Depth: See step 3.2.3.3.</li>
			<li>Overall gain: See step 3.2.3.4.</li>
			<li>Click on acquire.</li>
		</ol>
		</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>

<ol>
	<li>Bronshteyn, Y. S., Blitz, J., Hashmi, N., Krishnan, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Logistics+of+perioperative+diagnostic+point-of-care+ultrasound:+nomenclature,+scope+of+practice,+training,+credentialing/privileging,+and+billing.">Logistics of perioperative diagnostic point-of-care ultrasound: nomenclature, scope of practice, training, credentialing/privileging, and billing.</a> International Anesthesiology Clinics. 60 (3), 1-7 (2022).</li><li>Lichtenstein, D. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Lung+ultrasound+in+the+critically+ill.">Lung ultrasound in the critically ill.</a> Annals of Intensive Care. 4 (1), (2014).</li><li>Helgeson, S. A., Fritz, A. V., Tatari, M. M., Daniels, C. E., Diaz-Gomez, J. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Reducing+iatrogenic+pneumothoraces:+Using+real-time+ultrasound+guidance+for+pleural+procedures.">Reducing iatrogenic pneumothoraces: Using real-time ultrasound guidance for pleural procedures.</a> Critical Care Medicine. 47 (7), 903-909 (2019).</li><li>Tusman, G., Acosta, C. M., Costantini, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Ultrasonography+for+the+assessment+of+lung+recruitment+maneuvers.">Ultrasonography for the assessment of lung recruitment maneuvers.</a> Critical Ultrasound Journal. 8 (1), (2016).</li><li>McGinness, A., Lin-Martore, M., Addo, N., Shaahinfar, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+unmet+demand+for+point-of-care+ultrasound+among+general+pediatricians:+A+cross-sectional+survey.">The unmet demand for point-of-care ultrasound among general pediatricians: A cross-sectional survey.</a> BMC Medical Education. 22 (1), (2022).</li><li>Liu, J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Protocol+and+guidelines+for+point-of-care+lung+ultrasound+in+diagnosing+neonatal+pulmonary+diseases+based+on+international+expert+consensus.">Protocol and guidelines for point-of-care lung ultrasound in diagnosing neonatal pulmonary diseases based on international expert consensus.</a> Journal of Visualized Experiments. (145), e58990 (2019).</li><li>Liu, J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Specification+and+guideline+for+technical+aspects+and+scanning+parameter+settings+of+neonatal+lung+ultrasound+examination.">Specification and guideline for technical aspects and scanning parameter settings of neonatal lung ultrasound examination.</a> The Journal of Maternal-Fetal &amp; Neonatal Medicine. 35 (5), 1003-1016 (2022).</li><li>Volpicelli, G., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=International+evidence-based+recommendations+for+point-of-care+lung+ultrasound.">International evidence-based recommendations for point-of-care lung ultrasound.</a> Intensive Care Medicine. 38 (4), 577-591 (2012).</li><li>Fox, W. C., Krishnamoorthy, V., Hashmi, N., Bronshteyn, Y. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Pneumonia:+Hiding+in+plain+(film)+sight.">Pneumonia: Hiding in plain (film) sight.</a> Journal of Cardiothoracic and Vascular Anesthesia. 34 (11), 3154-3157 (2020).</li><li>Kok, B., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Comparing+lung+ultrasound:+extensive+versus+short+in+COVID-19+(CLUES):+A+multicentre,+observational+study+at+the+emergency+department.">Comparing lung ultrasound: extensive versus short in COVID-19 (CLUES): A multicentre, observational study at the emergency department.</a> BMJ Open. 11 (9), 048795 (2021).</li><li>Kiamanesh, O., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Lung+ultrasound+for+cardiologists+in+the+time+of+COVID-19.">Lung ultrasound for cardiologists in the time of COVID-19.</a> The Canadian Journal of Cardiology. 36 (7), 1144-1147 (2020).</li><li>Picano, E., Scali, M. C., Ciampi, Q., Lichtenstein, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Lung+ultrasound+for+the+cardiologist.">Lung ultrasound for the cardiologist.</a> JACC. Cardiovascular Imaging. 11 (11), 1692-1705 (2018).</li><li>Kisslo, J., vonRamm, O. T., Thurstone, F. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cardiac+imaging+using+a+phased+array+ultrasound+system.+II.+Clinical+technique+and+application.">Cardiac imaging using a phased array ultrasound system. II. Clinical technique and application.</a> Circulation. 53 (2), 262-267 (1976).</li><li>vonRamm, O. T., Thurstone, F. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cardiac+imaging+using+a+phased+array+ultrasound+system.+I.+System+design.">Cardiac imaging using a phased array ultrasound system. I. System design.</a> Circulation. 53 (2), 258-262 (1976).</li><li>. Count backwards from 10 Available from: <a target="_blank" href="https://www.countbackwardsfrom10.com">https://www.countbackwardsfrom10.com</a> (2023)</li><li>Mojoli, F., Bouhemad, B., Mongodi, S., Lichtenstein, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Lung+ultrasound+for+critically+ill+patients.">Lung ultrasound for critically ill patients.</a> American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine. 199 (6), 701-714 (2019).</li><li>Volpicelli, G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Lung+ultrasound+B-lines+in+interstitial+lung+disease:+moving+from+diagnosis+to+prognostic+stratification.">Lung ultrasound B-lines in interstitial lung disease: moving from diagnosis to prognostic stratification.</a> Chest. 158 (4), 1323-1324 (2020).</li><li>Retief, J., Chopra, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Pitfalls+in+the+ultrasonographic+diagnosis+of+pneumothorax.">Pitfalls in the ultrasonographic diagnosis of pneumothorax.</a> Journal of the Intensive Care Society. 18 (2), 143-145 (2017).</li><li>Lichtenstein, D., Meziere, G., Biderman, P., Gepner, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+comet-tail+artifact:+An+ultrasound+sign+ruling+out+pneumothorax.">The comet-tail artifact: An ultrasound sign ruling out pneumothorax.</a> Intensive Care Medicine. 25 (4), 383-388 (1999).</li><li>Arbelot, C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Lung+ultrasound+in+emergency+and+critically+ill+patients:+Number+of+supervised+exams+to+reach+basic+competence.">Lung ultrasound in emergency and critically ill patients: Number of supervised exams to reach basic competence.</a> Anesthesiology. 132 (4), 899-907 (2020).</li><li>Soldati, G., Demi, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+use+of+lung+ultrasound+images+for+the+differential+diagnosis+of+pulmonary+and+cardiac+interstitial+pathology.">The use of lung ultrasound images for the differential diagnosis of pulmonary and cardiac interstitial pathology.</a> Journal of Ultrasound. 20 (2), 91-96 (2017).</li><li>Schrift, D., Barron, K., Arya, R., Choe, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+use+of+POCUS+to+manage+ICU+patients+with+COVID-19.">The use of POCUS to manage ICU patients with COVID-19.</a> Journal of Ultrasound in Medicine. 40 (9), 1749-1761 (2021).</li><li>Narasimhan, M., Koenig, S. J., Mayo, P. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Advanced+echocardiography+for+the+critical+care+physician:+part+2.">Advanced echocardiography for the critical care physician: part 2.</a> Chest. 145 (1), 135-142 (2014).</li><li>Balik, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Ultrasound+estimation+of+volume+of+pleural+fluid+in+mechanically+ventilated+patients.">Ultrasound estimation of volume of pleural fluid in mechanically ventilated patients.</a> Intensive Care Medicine. 32 (2), 318 (2006).</li><li>Zieleskiewicz, L., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Comparative+study+of+lung+ultrasound+and+chest+computed+tomography+scan+in+the+assessment+of+severity+of+confirmed+COVID-19+pneumonia.">Comparative study of lung ultrasound and chest computed tomography scan in the assessment of severity of confirmed COVID-19 pneumonia.</a> Intensive Care Medicine. 46 (9), 1707-1713 (2020).</li><li>Bronshteyn, Y. 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YB serves on the American Society of Anesthesiologists&#39; Editorial Board on Point-of-Care Ultrasound and is the Section Editor for POCUS for OpenAnesthesia.org.

Diagnostic POCUS is the use of ultrasound at the bedside by a patient&#39;s primary treatment provider to answer clinical questions. The questions most amenable to diagnostic POCUS are those that are qualitative or binary in nature and that need to be answered faster than would be possible or practical with consultative ultrasound services.
A few steps are critical for image acquisition. The first one is probe selection. The authors recommend that the initial assessment be performed using the ...

Over the past several decades, bedside decision-making and treatment have increasingly been augmented by point-of-care ultrasound (POCUS). POCUS is the use of ultrasound for diagnostic or procedural guidance by a patient&#39;s primary treatment provider. This is in contrast to consultative ultrasound, where the ultrasound exam is requested by a patient&#39;s primary treatment provider but is performed by a separate specialist team1.
This narrative review focuses on diagnostic POCUS of a specific organ system: the lungs. Diagnostic POCUS of the lungs has proven useful in the acute care setting, allowing the diagnosis of potentially life-threatening conditions in scenarios of respiratory failure, shock, trauma, chest pain, and other situations2. Further, procedural lung POCUS is being used to guide needle placement in percutaneous thoracentesis3 and lung recruitment maneuvers4. However, despite its clinical significance, lung POCUS proficiency among physicians&#160;is variable5, limiting the appropriate use of this modality. The purpose of this review is to describe a time-efficient yet thorough image acquisition protocol for diagnostic lung POCUS in adults and to illustrate abnormal findings commonly found in clinical practice. The method described herein is not suitable for newborns and small infants. For information regarding lung POCUS imaging techniques and interpretation in this particular age group, the reader is invited to refer to specific literature6,7.
There are multiple imaging protocols described in the literature, varying from four-point to 28-point exams depending on how much time is available and what questions the exam is seeking to answer8. While the diagnostic accuracy for certain pathologies might be higher when more points are scanned, a focused six-point protocol offers a reasonable trade-off between efficiency and diagnostic accuracy2,9,10,11,12.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Edge 1 ultrasound machine</td>
			<td>SonoSite</td>
			<td>n/a</td>
			<td>Used to obtain two of the abnormal images/clips (Figures 11 and 12)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Affiniti ultrasound machine</td>
			<td>Philips</td>
			<td>n/a</td>
			<td>Used to obtain all normal and all abnormal images/clips except for Figures 11 and 12</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

point-of-care lung ultrasound in adults: image acquisition

Consultative ultrasound performed by radiologists has traditionally not been used for imaging the lungs, as the lungs&#39; air-filled nature normally prevents direct visualization of the lung parenchyma. When showing the lung parenchyma, ultrasound typically generates a number of non-anatomic artifacts. However, over the past several decades, these artifacts have been studied by diagnostic point-of-care ultrasound (POCUS) practitioners, who have identified findings that have value in narrowing the differential diagnoses of cardiopulmonary dysfunction. For instance, in patients presenting with dyspnea, lung POCUS is superior to chest radiography (CXR) for the diagnosis of pneumothorax, pulmonary edema, lung consolidations, and pleural effusions. Despite its known diagnostic value, the utilization of lung POCUS in clinical medicine remains variable, in part because training in this modality across hospitals remains inconsistent. To address this educational gap, this narrative review describes lung POCUS image acquisition in adults, including patient positioning, transducer selection, probe placement, acquisition sequence, and image optimization.

Normal lung ultrasound findings&#160;(Video 1, Video 2, Video 3, Video 4, Video 5, Video 6, and Supplementary File 1) 
Due to the marked discrepancy in acoustic impedance between the air in the lungs and the superficial tissues, normally all the ultrasound energy that reaches the interface of the parietal and visceral pleurae is immediately reflected back to the ultrasound transducer. As a result, at the depth of the lung parenchyma, the image seen on the screen of an ultrasound machine normally sho...

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Point-of-Care Lung Ultrasound in Adults: Image Acquisition

Point-of-care ultrasound (POCUS) of the lungs provides quick answers in rapidly changing clinical scenarios. We present an efficient and informative protocol for image acquisition for use in acute care settings.

Consultative ultrasound performed by radiologists has traditionally not been used for imaging the lungs, as the lungs&#39; air-filled nature normally ...

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5.4K Views.  Duke University School of Medicine. Point-of-care ultrasound (POCUS) of the lungs provides quick answers in rapidly changing clinical scenarios. We present an efficient and informative protocol for image acquisition for use in acute care settings.

Video: Point-of-Care Lung Ultrasound in Adults: Image Acquisition

Protocol and Guidelines for Point-of-Care Lung Ultrasound in Diagnosing Neonatal Pulmonary Diseases Based on International Expert Consensus

Ultrasound is a safe bedside imaging tool that obviates the use of ionizing radiation diagnostic procedures. Due to its convenience, the lung ultrasound has received increasing attention from neonatal physicians. Nevertheless, clear reference standards and guideline limits are needed for accurate application of this diagnostic modality. This document aims to summarize expert opinions and to provide precise guidance to help facilitate the use of the lung ultrasound in the diagnosis of neonatal lung diseases.

Lung ultrasound is a noninvasive and valuable tool for bedside evaluation of neonatal lung diseases. However, a relative lack of reference standards, protocols and guidelines may limit its application. Here, we aim to develop a standardized neonatal lung ultrasound diagnostic protocol to be used in clinical decision-making.

Ultrasound is a safe bedside imaging tool that obviates the use of ionizing radiation diagnostic procedures. Due to its convenience, the lung ultrasound ...

Point-Of-Care Ultrasound Screening for Proximal Lower Extremity Deep Venous Thrombosis

Acute lower extremity deep venous thrombosis (DVT) is a serious vascular disorder that requires accurate and early diagnosis to prevent life-threatening sequelae. While whole leg compression ultrasound with color and spectral Doppler is commonly performed in radiology and vascular labs, point-of-care ultrasound (POCUS) is becoming more common in the acute care setting. Providers appropriately trained in focused POCUS can perform a rapid bedside examination with high sensitivity and specificity in critically ill patients. This paper describes a simplified yet validated approach to POCUS by describing a three-zone protocol for lower extremity DVT POCUS image acquisition. The protocol explains the steps in obtaining vascular images at six compression points in the lower extremity. Beginning at the level of the proximal thigh and moving distally to the popliteal space, the protocol guides the user through each of the compression points in a stepwise manner: from the common femoral vein to the femoral and deep femoral vein bifurcation, and, finally, to the popliteal vein. Further, a visual aid is provided that may assist providers during real-time image acquisition. The goal in presenting this protocol is to help make proximal lower extremity DVT exams more accessible and efficient for POCUS users at the patient&#39;s bedside.

Traditionally, lower extremity deep venous thrombosis (DVT) is diagnosed by radiology-performed venous duplex ultrasound. Providers appropriately trained in focused point-of-care ultrasound (POCUS) can perform a rapid bedside examination with high sensitivity and specificity in critically ill patients. We describe the scanning technique for focused POCUS DVT lower extremity examination.

Acute lower extremity deep venous thrombosis (DVT) is a serious vascular disorder that requires accurate and early diagnosis to prevent life-threatening ...

Point-of-Care Ultrasound: A Review of Ultrasound Parameters for Predicting Difficult Airways

Airway management remains a crucial part of perioperative care. The conventional approach to assessing potentially difficult airways emphasizes the LEMON method, which looks for and evaluates the Mallampati classification, signs of obstruction, and neck mobility. Clinical findings help predict a higher likelihood of difficult tracheal intubation, but no clinical result reliably excludes difficult intubation. Ultrasound as an adjunct to clinical examination can provide the clinician with a dynamic anatomical airway assessment, which is impossible with clinical examination alone. In the hands of anesthesiologists, ultrasound is becoming more popular in the perioperative period. This method is particularly applicable for identifying proper endotracheal tube positioning in specific patient populations, such as those who are morbidly obese and patients with head and neck cancer or trauma. The focus is on identifying the normal anatomy, correctly positioning the endotracheal tube, and refining the parameters that predict difficult intubation. Several ultrasound measurements are clinical indicators of difficult direct laryngoscopy in the literature. A meta-analysis revealed that the distance from the skin to the epiglottis (DSE) is most associated with a difficult laryngoscopy. An ultrasound of the airway could be applied in routine practice as an adjunct to the clinical examination. A full stomach, rapid sequence intubation, gross visual anatomical abnormalities, and restricted neck flexibility prevent using ultrasound to assess the airway. The airway evaluation is performed with a linear array transducer of 12-4 MHz, with the patient in the supine position, with no pillow, and with the head and neck in a neutral position. The central axis of the neck is where the ultrasound parameters are measured. These image acquisitions guide the standard ultrasound examination of the airway.

A point-of-care ultrasound (POCUS) is a simple, non-invasive, and portable tool that enables dynamic airway assessment. Several studies have attempted to determine the role of ultrasound parameters as an adjunct to clinical examination in predicting difficult laryngoscopies.

Airway management remains a crucial part of perioperative care. The conventional approach to assessing potentially difficult airways emphasizes the LEMON ...

Optic Nerve Sheath Point of Care Ultrasound: Image Acquisition

The goal of this protocol is to develop a standardized method for acquiring images of the optic nerve sheath and measuring the optic nerve sheath diameter (ONSD). Diagnostic ultrasound of the ONSD to detect intracranial hypertension has traditionally faced many problems because of methodologic discrepancies. Due to inconsistencies in the measuring techniques, the potential for ONSD to become a non-invasive bedside monitoring tool for ICP has been hampered. However, establishing a transparent, consistent methodology for measuring the ONSD would support its use as a valid and reliable method of identifying intracranial hypertension. This is important as it has both high sensitivity and specificity in acute care settings. This narrative review describes ONSD POCUS image acquisition, including patient positioning, transducer selection, probe placement, the acquisition sequence, and image optimization. Further, visual aids are provided to assist in real-time during image acquisition. This method should be considered for patients for whom there are concerns regarding intracranial hypertension but who do not have an intracranial monitor in place.

Point-of-care ultrasound (POCUS) of the optic nerve sheath diameter (ONSD) has been shown to be useful in identifying patients with increased intracranial pressure (ICP). However, the non-standardized technique for this POCUS has hampered its use. We present a standardized image acquisition protocol for use in the acute care setting.

The goal of this protocol is to develop a standardized method for acquiring images of the optic nerve sheath and measuring the optic nerve sheath diameter ...

Imaging the Abdominal Aorta with Point-of-Care Ultrasound

An Approach to Point-Of-Care Ultrasound Evaluation of the Abdominal Aorta

Disorders of the abdominal aorta, including aneurysms and dissection, have potentially high rates of morbidity and mortality. While computed tomography (CT) is the current gold standard to image the abdominal aorta, the process of obtaining a CT may be time-consuming, requires the use of intravenous contrast dye, and involves exposure to ionizing radiation. Point-of-care Ultrasound (POCUS) can be performed at the bedside and has excellent sensitivity and specificity for the diagnosis of abdominal aortic aneurysm and excellent specificity for the diagnosis of abdominal aortic dissection. Additionally, POCUS is non-invasive, cost-effective, lacks ionizing radiation, requires no intravenous contrast dye, and can be performed without taking the patient from a critical care area. Screening for abdominal aortic aneurysm (AAA) can be done in primary care settings as well. 
This article will review the approach to POCUS of the abdominal aorta to evaluate such critical pathology. In this paper, we will review the sonographic anatomy of the abdominal aorta as well as the choice of the ultrasound probe, description of POCUS image acquisition, and some pearls and pitfalls of using POCUS to aid in the diagnosis of potentially life-threatening abdominal aortic pathology.

Author Spotlight: Using Point-of-Care Ultrasound for Comprehensive Evaluation of the Abdominal Aorta

This protocol reviews the steps to image the abdominal aorta with point-of-care ultrasound. We discuss image acquisition, troubleshooting imaging pitfalls and artifacts, and the recognition of life-threatening abdominal aortic pathology.

Disorders of the abdominal aorta, including aneurysms and dissection, have potentially high rates of morbidity and mortality. While computed tomography ...

Gastric Ultrasound Technique for Mitigating Peri-Procedural Aspiration Risk

Gastric Point of Care Ultrasound in Adults: Image Acquisition and Interpretation

Over the past two decades, diagnostic point-of-care ultrasound (POCUS) has emerged as a rapid and non-invasive bedside tool for addressing clinical inquiries related to gastric content. One emerging concern pertains to patients about to undergo sedation and/or endotracheal intubation: the elevated risk of aspiration from the patient&#39;s stomach contents. Aspiration of gastric contents into the lungs poses a serious and potentially life-threatening complication. This occurs more frequently when the stomach is considered &#34;full&#34; and can be affected by the techniques employed for airway management, making it potentially preventable. To mitigate the risk of peri-procedural aspiration, two distinct medical specialties (anesthesiology and critical care medicine) have independently developed techniques to utilize ultrasonography for identifying patients requiring &#34;full stomach&#34; precautions. Due to these separate specialties, the work of each group remains relatively unfamiliar outside its respective field. This article presents descriptions of both techniques for gastric ultrasound. Furthermore, it explains how these approaches can complement each other when one of them falls short. Regarding image acquisition, the article covers the following topics: indications and contraindications, selection of the appropriate probe, patient positioning, and troubleshooting. The article also delves into image interpretation, complete with example images. Additionally, it demonstrates how one of the two techniques can be employed to estimate gastric fluid volume. Lastly, the article briefly discusses medical decision-making based on the findings of this examination.

Author Spotlight: Point-of-Care Ultrasound for Gastric Content Assessment and Risk Stratification in Perioperative Care 

This protocol introduces two methods for image acquisition in gastric ultrasonography. Additionally, tips are provided for interpreting this information to assist in medical decision-making.

Over the past two decades, diagnostic point-of-care ultrasound (POCUS) has emerged as a rapid and non-invasive bedside tool for addressing clinical ...

Ultrasound in Evaluating Diaphragm Dysfunction and Monitoring Treatment

Measuring Diaphragm Thickness and Function Using Point-of-Care Ultrasound

The diaphragm is the main component of the respiratory muscle pump. Diaphragm dysfunction can cause dyspnea and exercise intolerance, and predisposes affected individuals to respiratory failure. In mechanically ventilated patients, the diaphragm is susceptible to atrophy and dysfunction through disuse and other mechanisms. This contributes to failure to wean and poor long-term clinical outcomes. Point-of-care ultrasound provides a valid and reproducible method for evaluating diaphragm thickness and contractile activity (thickening fraction during inspiration) that can be readily employed by clinicians and researchers alike. This article presents best practices for measuring diaphragm thickness and quantifying diaphragm thickening during tidal breathing or maximal inspiration. Once mastered, this technique can be used to diagnose and prognosticate diaphragm dysfunction, and guide and monitor response to treatment over time in both healthy individuals and acute or chronically ill patients.

Author Spotlight: Unraveling the Impact of Mechanical Ventilation on Diaphragm Function and Patient Outcomes 

Diaphragm thickness and function can be assessed in healthy individuals and critically ill patients using point-of-care ultrasound. This technique offers an accurate, reproducible, feasible, and well-tolerated method for evaluating diaphragm structure and function.

The diaphragm is the main component of the respiratory muscle pump. Diaphragm dysfunction can cause dyspnea and exercise intolerance, and predisposes ...

Imaging the Abdominal Aorta in the Transverse Plane Using Point-of-Care Ultrasound

To begin scanning, position the patient's supine with the abdomen exposed. Hip flexion, if tolerated by the patient, relaxes the abdominal muscles and may improve image acquisition. Apply ultrasound gel to the transducer.Orient the transducer and the transverse plane with the indicator toward the patient's right. Ensure that the indicator position matches the one displayed on the screen. Place the transducer just distal to the patient's xiphoid process and apply light pressure to visualize the anterior aspect of the vertebra with its hyperechoic shadow casting arch.Slide the transducer coddly until the celiac trunk is visualized. The celiac trunk is short and quickly bifurcates into the hepatic artery and splenic artery, which together form the seagull sign. Capture these images for later review by clicking the button on the system that records clips.Slide the transducer coddly to view the superior mesenteric artery or SMA. Coming off the anterior aorta, SMA follows a path parallel to the aorta to course inferiorly. The splenic vein courses anterior to the SMA and the left renal vein courses between the SMA and the aorta.Measure the AP diameter of the suprarenal aorta by optimizing a live image of the aorta in this location, and then pressing the system's freeze button. Press caliper or measure and move the track ball or touch pad of the system to the outer edge of the anterior wall, the adventitia and click select. Next, move the track ball or touch pad again to the outer edge of the posterior wall and click select.Wait for the system to generate a measurement. Click the button on the system that saves still images to save this image as a still image containing the measurement. Continue scanning in a transverse plane to visualize the entirety of the aorta through the bifurcation and capture the images.When a live image of the distal aorta is optimized, measure the AP diameter of the infrarenal aorta. Press caliper or measure and move the track ball or touch pad of the system to the outer edge of the anterior wall, the adventitia and click select. Move the track ball or touch pad again to the outer edge of the posterior wall and click select.Wait for the system to generate a measurement. Save the still image as demonstrated previously. Adjust the depth as the abdominal aorta courses coddly through the abdomen becoming more superficial and tapering slightly.Continue scanning coddly through the aortic bifurcation into the left and right iliac arteries. Adjusting the depth to maintain the aorta in vertebral body in the middle of the screen. Capture images while scanning through the bifurcation.When imaging the abdominal aorta in the transverse plane, an aorta measuring greater than 3 centimeters was considered aneurysmal. Such aneurysms also showed the presence of a hematoma filling most of the lumen. The presence of an intimal flap within the lumen of the aorta indicated aortic dissection.Depending on the chronicity of the dissection, the flap was either thin and moved with the pulsations of the aorta or thickened and had an adjacent hematoma. An acute thoracic aortic dissection was found to extend through the abdominal aorta and into the right iliac artery.

Imaging the Abdominal Aorta in the Longitudinal and Coronal Plane Using Point-of-Care Ultrasound

To begin scanning, position the patient's supine with the abdomen exposed. Hip flexion, if tolerated by the patient, relaxes the abdominal muscles and may improve image acquisition. Apply ultrasound gel to the transducer.Place the transducer transversely in the proximal abdomen, and the transverse plane, with the indicator toward the patient's right. Ensure that the indicator position matches the one displayed on the screen. Starting in the subxiphoid area, scan to obtain a transverse view of the aorta.Once the transverse view of the aorta is optimized, rotate the probe clockwise with the indicator pointing towards the patient's head. Following the aorta as the image becomes longitudinal on the screen. Acquire images while scanning caudally, examining for aneurysmal dilations, and save these images for later review by clicking the button on the system that records clip.To obtain a longitudinal view of the aorta in the coronal plane, if possible, position the patient in the left lateral decubitus position for better image acquisition. Place the transducer in the coronal plane at the mid axillary line on the patient's right with the indicator pointing cranially. Scan the aorta in the coronal plane.The aorta will be visualized deep into the IVC if both vessels are imaged. The abdominal aortic pseudo thrombus was a reverberation artifact resulting from the reflection of the ultrasound beam between the anterior and posterior walls of the SMA.

Advancing Bedside Care: A Multidisciplinary Guide to Kidney-Genitourinary POCUS

Point-of-Care Kidney and Genitourinary Ultrasound in Adults: Image Acquisition

A range of conditions involving the kidneys and urinary bladder can cause organ-threatening complications that are preventable if diagnosed promptly with diagnostic imaging. Common imaging modalities include either computed tomography or diagnostic ultrasound. Traditionally, ultrasound of the kidney-genitourinary system has required consultative teams consisting of a sonographer performing image acquisition and a radiologist performing image interpretation. However, diagnostic point-of-care ultrasound (POCUS) has recently emerged as a useful tool to troubleshoot acute kidney injury at the bedside. Studies have shown that non-radiologists can be trained to perform diagnostic POCUS of the kidneys and bladder with high accuracy for a set number of important conditions. Currently, diagnostic POCUS of the kidney-genitourinary system remains underused in actual clinical practice. This is likely because image acquisition for this organ system is unfamiliar to most clinicians in specialties that encounter acute kidney injury, including primary care, emergency medicine, intensive care, anesthesiology, nephrology, and urology. To address this multi-specialty educational gap, this narrative review was developed by a multi-disciplinary group to provide a specialty-agnostic framework for kidney-genitourinary POCUS image acquisition: indications/contraindications, patient positioning, transducer selection, acquisition sequence, and exam limitations. Finally, we describe foundational concepts in kidney-genitourinary ultrasound image interpretation, including key abnormal findings that every bedside clinician performing this modality should know.

Author Spotlight: Developing a Bedside Protocol for Kidney and Genitourinary Ultrasonography

Point-of-care ultrasound (POCUS) of the renal and genitourinary (renal-GU) system can help to screen for certain causes of kidney dysfunction. However, despite its clinical utility, renal-GU POCUS remains underutilized due to a lack of training among clinicians. To address this gap, this article describes renal-GU image acquisition and interpretation.

A range of conditions involving the kidneys and urinary bladder can cause organ-threatening complications that are preventable if diagnosed promptly with ...