The authors thank Prof. Ralph Weissleder, Dr. Pat Zanzonico, and Dr. NagaVaraKishore Pillarsetty for helpful conversations and the NIH for funding (BMZ: 1K99CA178205-01A1)

ETHICS STATEMENT: All of the in vivo animal experiments described were performed according to an approved protocol and under the ethical guidelines of the Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC).
1. Synthesis of Tz-Bn-NOTA
<ol>
	<li>In a small reaction vessel, dissolve 7 mg NH2-Bn-NOTA (1.25 x 10-2 mmol) in 600 &#181;l NaHCO3 buffer (0.1 M, pH 8.1). Check the pH of the solution. If needed, adjust the pH of the solution to 8.1 using small aliquots of 0.1 M Na2CO3.</li>
	<li>Add the NH2-Bn-NOTA solution to 0.5 mg Tz-NHS (1.25 x 10-3 mmol) in a 1.7 ml microcentrifuge tube. 
	NOTE: The Tz-NHS can either be weighed out dry or added from a stock solution of dry DMF or DMSO (&#60; 50 &#181;l).</li>
	<li>Allow the resulting reaction solution to react for 30 min at RT with mild agitation.</li>
	<li>After 30 min, purify the product using reversed-phase C18 HPLC chromatography to remove unreacted NH2-Bn-NOTA. The NH2-Bn-NOTA can be monitored at a wavelength of 254 nm, while the Tz-NHS and Tz-Bn-NOTA are best monitored at a wavelength of 525 nm. 
	NOTE: Retention times are obviously highly dependent on the HPLC equipment setup of each laboratory (pumps, columns, tubing, etc.). However, to present an example, if a gradient of 0:100 MeCN/H2O (both with 0.1% TFA) to 100:0 MeCN/H2O over 25 min and an analytical 4.6 x 250 mm C18 column is used, the retention times of Tz-Bn-NOTA, Tz-NHS, and NH2-Bn-NOTA will be around 15 min, 16.5 min, and 10 min, respectively. The product can be purified from the other reaction components in either a single run or multiple runs using a semi-preparative or preparative C18 HPLC column. 1H-NMR, analytical HPLC, and ESI-MS are all methods that can be used to verify the purity of the completed Tz-Bn-NOTA precursor.11</li>
	<li>Freeze the collected HPLC eluent using liquid nitrogen.</li>
	<li>Wrap the frozen collection tube in opaque aluminum foil.</li>
	<li>Place the frozen collection tube in a lyophilizing vessel O/N to remove the HPLC mobile phase.</li>
	<li>Store the purified product (a bright pink solid) in the dark at -80 &#176;C. 
	NOTE: This is an acceptable stopping point in the procedure. The completed Tz-Bn-NOTA precursor is stable for at least 1 year under these conditions.</li>
</ol>
2. Preparation of huA33-TCO Immunoconjugate
<ol>
	<li>In a 1.7 ml microcentrifuge tube, prepare a 1 mg/ml (2.7 mM) solution of TCO-NHS in dry DMF.</li>
	<li>In a 1.7 ml microcentrifuge tube, prepare a 2 mg/ml (13.3 &#181;M) solution of huA33 in 1 ml of phosphate buffered saline, pH 7.4 (0.01 M PO43-, 0.154 M NaCl).</li>
	<li>Using small aliquots (&#60; 5 &#181;l) of 0.1 M Na2CO3, adjust the pH of the antibody solution to 8.8-9.0. Use either pH paper or a pH meter with a microelectrode to monitor the pH, and be careful not to allow the pH to rise above pH 9.0.</li>
	<li>Once the antibody solution is at the correct pH, add a volume of the TCO-NHS solution corresponding to 8 molar equivalents of the activated ester. For example, add 7.9 &#181;l of the 1 mg/ml TCO-NHS solution (1.07 x 10-7 mol TCO-NHS) to the 1 ml of 2 mg/ml huA33 antibody solution (1.33 x 10-8 mol huA33). Do not exceed 5% DMF by volume in the solution.</li>
	<li>Gently mix the solution by inverting the microcentrifuge tube several times.</li>
	<li>Wrap the microcentrifuge tube in opaque aluminum foil.</li>
	<li>Allow the solution to incubate for 1 hr at RT with mild agitation.</li>
	<li>After 1 hr at RT, purify the resulting immunoconjugate using a pre-packed disposable size exclusion desalting column. First, rinse the size exclusion column as described by the supplier to remove any preservatives present on the column during storage. Then, add the reaction mixture to the size exclusion column, rinse the column with 1.5 ml 0.9% sterile saline, and subsequently collect the product using 2 ml of 0.9% sterile saline as the eluent. 
	NOTE: This step will yield the completed huA33-TCO as a 2 ml solution.</li>
	<li>Measure the concentration of the resultant huA33-TCO on a UV-Vis spectrophotometer.</li>
	<li>If a higher concentration is desired, concentrate the huA33-TCO solution using a centrifugal filter unit with a 50,000 molecular weight cut-off. 
	NOTE: It is important to note that while huA33 and a variety of other well-known antibodies (e.g., bevacizumab, trastuzumab, cetuximab, and J591) are very tolerant of being concentrated, aggregation and precipitation can occur upon concentration in other cases. Researchers attempting this procedure with a new antibody should trust the literature or their own knowledge of the antibody in question with regard to whether or not to concentrate the antibody.</li>
	<li>Store the completed huA33-TCO immunoconjugate at 4 &#176;C in the dark. 
	NOTE: This is an acceptable stopping point in the procedure. The completed mAb-TCO conjugate should be stable for at least 3 months under these storage conditions.</li>
</ol>
3. 64Cu Radiolabeling of Tz-Bn-NOTA
NOTE: This step of the protocol involves the handling and manipulation of radioactivity. Before performing these steps &#8212; or performing any other work with radioactivity &#8212; researchers should consult with their home institution&#8217;s Radiation Safety Department. Take all possible steps to minimize exposure to ionizing radiation.
<ol>
	<li>In a 1.7 ml microcentrifuge tube, prepare a 0.5 mg/ml (723 &#181;M) solution of Tz-Bn-NOTA.</li>
	<li>In a 1.7 ml microcentrifuge tube, add 10 &#181;l of the Tz-Bn-NOTA solution (5 &#181;g) to 400 &#181;l of 0.2 M NH4OAc pH 5.5 buffer. </li>
	<li>In the interest of proper radiochemical note-keeping, measure and record the amount of radioactivity in the sample using a dose calibrator before and after the ensuing steps in the protocol below (3.4-3.8). This will help with the accurate determination of radiochemical yields.</li>
	<li>Add 2,000 &#181;Ci (74 MBq) of 64Cu to the Tz-Bn-NOTA solution. 
	NOTE: Typically, [64Cu]CuCl2 is supplied in a small volume (&#60; 30 &#181;l) of 0.1 N HCl, and thus only small volumes (&#60; 10 &#181;l) of this stock solution are needed for the radiolabeling reaction. If larger volumes of the [64Cu]CuCl2 stock are needed, the radiolabeling reaction is tolerant of increasing the overall reaction volume. However, the pH of the radiolabeling reaction solution should be monitored carefully to ensure that it does not fall below pH 4.0.</li>
	<li>Allow the solution to incubate for 10 min at RT with mild agitation.</li>
	<li>After 10 min of incubation, purify the product using reversed-phase C18 HPLC chromatography. Retention times are obviously highly dependent on the HPLC equipment setup of each laboratory (pumps, columns, tubing, etc.). However, to present an example, if a gradient of 5:95 MeCN/H2O (both with 0.1% TFA) to 95:5 MeCN/H2O over 15 min is used, the retention time of 64Cu-Tz-Bn-NOTA should be around 9.8 min while free, uncomplexed 64Cu will elute with the solvent front at around 2-4 min.</li>
	<li>Using a rotary evaporator, remove the HPLC eluent.</li>
	<li>Redissolve the 64Cu-Tz-Bn-NOTA product in 0.9% sterile saline. 
	NOTE: Given the 12.7 hr physical half-life of 64Cu, this is not an acceptable stopping point in the procedure. Perform the synthesis of 64Cu-Tz-Bn-NOTA immediately prior to the injection of the radioligand, and follow Step 3.7 immediately by Step 4.5.</li>
</ol>
4. In Vivo Pretargeted PET Imaging
NOTE: As in Protocol Section 3, this step of the protocol involves the handling and manipulation of radioactivity. Before performing these steps researchers should consult with their home institution&#8217;s Radiation Safety Department. Take all possible steps to minimize exposure to ionizing radiation.
<ol>
	<li>In a female athymic nude mouse, subcutaneously implant 1 x 106 SW1222 colorectal cancer cells and allow these to grow into a 100-150 mm3 xenograft (9-12 days after inoculation).11</li>
	<li>Dilute an aliquot of the huA33-TCO solution from Protocol Section 2 to a concentration of 0.5 mg/ml in 0.9% sterile saline.</li>
	<li>Inject 200 &#181;l of the huA33-TCO solution (100 &#181;g) into the tail vein of the xenograft-bearing mouse.</li>
	<li>Allow 24 hr for the accumulation of the huA33-TCO in the tumor of the mouse.</li>
	<li>Dilute the 64Cu-Tz-Bn-NOTA radioligand to a concentration of 1.5 mCi/ml in 0.9% sterile saline.</li>
	<li>Inject 200 &#181;l of the 64Cu-Tz-Bn-NOTA radioligand solution (300 &#181;Ci; 11.1 MBq; 1.6 nmol of 64Cu-Tz-Bn-NOTA, assuming a specific activity of 6.7 MBq/nmol) into the tail vein of the xenograft-bearing mice.</li>
	<li>At the desired imaging time point (e.g., 2, 6, 12, or 24 hr post-injection), anesthetize the mouse with a 2% isoflurane:oxygen gas mixture.</li>
	<li>Place the mouse on the bed of the small animal PET scanner. Maintain anesthesia during the scan using a 1% isoflurane:oxygen gas mixture. Prior to placing the animal on the scanner bed, verify anesthesia using the toe-pinch method and apply veterinary ointment to the eyes of the mouse to prevent drying during anesthesia.</li>
	<li>Acquire the PET data for the mouse via a static scan with a minimum of 20 million coincident events using an energy window of 350-700 keV and a coincidence timing window of 6 nsec. After completing the acquisition of the image, do not leave the mouse unattended and do not place it in a cage with other mice until it has regained consciousness.</li>
</ol>

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The authors have nothing to disclose.

The principal advantage of this pretargeted PET imaging strategy is that it is capable of delineating tumors with target-to-background image contrast at only a fraction of the background radiation dose produced by directly labeled antibodies. For example, in the colorectal cancer imaging system described here, data from acute biodistribution experiments were employed to perform dosimetry calculations for the 64Cu-based pretargeting strategy along with directly-labeled 64Cu-NOTA-huA33 and 89</su...

Over the last thirty years, positron emission tomography (PET) has become an indispensable clinical tool in the diagnosis and management of cancer. Antibodies have long been considered promising vectors for the delivery of positron-emitting radioisotopes to tumors due to their exquisite affinity and specificity for cancer biomarkers.1,2 However, the relatively slow in vivo pharmacokinetics of antibodies mandates the use of radioisotopes with multi-day physical half-lives. This combination can yield high radiation doses to the non-target organs of patients, an important complication that is of particular clinical significance since radioimmunoconjugates are injected intravenously and therefore &#8212; unlike partial body CT scans&#160;&#8212; result in absorbed doses in every part of the body, irrespective of the interrogated tissues.
In order to bypass this issue, significant effort has been dedicated to the development of PET imaging strategies that decouple the radioisotope and the targeting moiety, thereby leveraging the advantageous properties of antibodies while simultaneously skirting their intrinsic pharmacokinetic limitations. These strategies &#8212; most often termed pretargeting or multistep targeting &#8212; typically employ four steps: (1) the administration of an antibody capable of binding both an antigen and a radioligand; (2) the accumulation of the antibody in the target tissue and its clearance from the blood; (3) the administration of a small molecule radioligand; and (4) the in vivo ligation of the radioligand to the antibody followed by the rapid clearance of excess radioligand.3-8 In some cases, an additional clearing agent is injected between steps 2 and 3 in order to accelerate the excretion of any antibody that has yet to bind the tumor and remains in the blood.5
Broadly speaking, two types of pretargeting strategies are most prevalent in the literature. While both have proven successful in preclinical models, they also possess key limitations that have impeded their clinical applicability. The first strategy relies on the high affinity between streptavidin-conjugated antibodies and biotin-modified radiolabels; however, the immunogenicity of the streptavidin-modified antibodies has proven to be a worrisome problem with regard to translation.5,6,9,10 The second strategy, in contrast, employs bispecific antibodies that have been genetically-engineered to bind both a cancer biomarker antigen and a small molecule radiolabeled hapten.3,11-14 While this latter route is certainly creative, its broad applicability is limited by the complexity, expense, and lack of modularity of the system.
Recently, we developed and published a pretargeted PET imaging methodology based on the inverse electron demand Diels-Alder (IEDDA) cycloaddition reaction between trans-cyclooctene (TCO) and tetrazine (Tz; Figure 1).11 While the reaction itself has been known for decades, IEDDA chemistry has experienced a renaissance in recent years as a click chemistry bioconjugation technique, as illustrated by the fascinating work of the groups of Ralph Weissleder, Joseph Fox, and Peter Conti among others.12-15 The IEDDA cycloaddition has been applied in a wide range of settings, including fluorescence imaging with peptides, antibodies, and nanoparticles as well as nuclear imaging with both radiohalogens and radiometals.16-26 The ligation is high yielding, clean, rapid (k1 &#62; 30,000 M-1sec-1), selective, and &#8212; critically &#8212; bioorthogonal.27 And while a number of types of click chemistry &#8212; including Cu-catalyzed azide-alkyne cycloadditions, strain-promoted azide-alkyne cycloadditions, and Staudinger ligations &#8212; are bioorthogonal as well, it is the unique combination of fast reaction kinetics and bioorthogonality that makes IEDDA chemistry so well suited to pretargeting applications in whole organisms.28,29 Along these lines, it is important to note that the recent report from our laboratories was not the first to apply IEDDA chemistry to pretargeting: the first report of pretargeted imaging with IEDDA arose from the work of Rossin, et al. and featured a SPECT methodology employing an 111In-labeled tetrazine.30
As we discussed above, the pretargeting methodology has four fairly simple steps (Figure 2). In the protocol at hand, a pretargeted strategy for the PET imaging of colorectal cancer that employs a 64Cu-NOTA-labeled tetrazine radioligand and a TCO-modified conjugate of the huA33 antibody will be described. However, ultimately the modularity of this methodology is one of its greatest assets, as the trans-cyclooctene moiety can be appended to any non-internalizing antibody, and the tetrazine can be attached to a wide variety of radioactive reporters.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="565">
	<tbody>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Tetrazine NHS Ester</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>764701</td>
			<td>Store at -80 &#176;C</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Trans-cyclooctene NHS Ester</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>764523</td>
			<td>Store at -80 &#176;C</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">p-NH2-Bn-NOTA</td>
			<td>Macrocyclics</td>
			<td>B-601</td>
			<td>Store at -80 &#176;C</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

harnessing the bioorthogonal inverse electron demand diels-alder cycloaddition for pretargeted pet imaging

Due to their exquisite affinity and specificity, antibodies have become extremely promising vectors for the delivery of radioisotopes to cancer cells for PET imaging. However, the necessity of labeling antibodies with radionuclides with long physical half-lives often results in high background radiation dose rates to non-target tissues. In order to circumvent this issue, we have employed a pretargeted PET imaging strategy based on the inverse electron demand Diels-Alder cycloaddition reaction. The methodology decouples the antibody from the radioactivity and thus exploits the positive characteristics of antibodies, while eschewing their pharmacokinetic drawbacks. The system is composed of four steps: (1) the injection of a mAb-trans-cyclooctene (TCO) conjugate; (2) a localization time period during which the antibody accumulates in the tumor and clears from the blood; (3) the injection of the radiolabeled tetrazine; and (4) the in vivo click ligation of the components followed by the clearance of excess radioligand. In the example presented in the work at hand, a 64Cu-NOTA-labeled tetrazine radioligand and a trans-cyclooctene-conjugated humanized antibody (huA33) were successfully used to delineate SW1222 colorectal cancer tumors with high tumor-to-background contrast. Further, the pretargeting methodology produces high quality images at only a fraction of the radiation dose to non-target tissue created by radioimmunoconjugates directly labeled with 64Cu or 89Zr. Ultimately, the modularity of this protocol is one of its greatest assets, as the trans-cyclooctene moiety can be appended to any non-internalizing antibody, and the tetrazine can be attached to a wide variety of radioisotopes.

The initial three steps of the experiment&#160;&#8212; the synthesis of Tz-Bn-NOTA, the conjugation of TCO to huA33, and the radiolabeling of the Tz-Bn-NOTA construct (Figures 3 and 4) &#8212;&#160;are highly reliable. In the case of the procedure above, the Tz-Bn-NOTA construct was synthesized in high yield and purity. The huA33 antibody was modified with 4.2&#160;&#177; 0.6 TCO/mAb, and Tz-Bn-NOTA was radiolabeled with 64Cu to yield the purified radioligand in &#62;99% radio...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Harnessing the Bioorthogonal Inverse Electron Demand Diels-Alder Cycloaddition for Pretargeted PET Imaging at JoVE.com

Harnessing the Bioorthogonal Inverse Electron Demand Diels-Alder Cycloaddition for Pretargeted PET Imaging

The bioorthogonal inverse electron demand Diels-Alder cycloaddition has been harnessed to create an effective and modular pretargeted PET imaging strategy for cancer. In this protocol, the steps of this methodology are described in the context of a model system employing the colorectal cancer targeted antibody huA33 and a 64Cu-labeled radioligand.

Due to their exquisite affinity and specificity, antibodies have become extremely promising vectors for the delivery of radioisotopes to cancer cells for ...

harnessing-bioorthogonal-inverse-electron-demand-diels-alder

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8.7K Aufrufe.  Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center. The bioorthogonal inverse electron demand Diels-Alder cycloaddition has been harnessed to create an effective and modular pretargeted PET imaging strategy for cancer. In this protocol, the steps of this methodology are described in the context of a model system employing the colorectal cancer targeted antibody huA33 and a 64Cu-labeled radioligand. 

Serie: Harnessing the Bioorthogonal Inverse Electron Demand Diels-Alder Cycloaddition for Pretargeted PET Imaging

High-resolution Fiber-optic Microendoscopy for in situ Cellular Imaging

Many biological and clinical studies require the longitudinal study and analysis of morphology and function with cellular level resolution. Traditionally, multiple experiments are run in parallel, with individual samples removed from the study at sequential time points for evaluation by light microscopy. Several intravital techniques have been developed, with confocal, multiphoton, and second harmonic microscopy all demonstrating their ability to be used for imaging in situ 1. With these systems, however, the required infrastructure is complex and expensive, involving scanning laser systems and complex light sources. Here we present a protocol for the design and assembly of a high-resolution microendoscope which can be built in a day using off-the-shelf components for under US$5,000. The platform offers flexibility in terms of image resolution, field-of-view, and operating wavelength, and we describe how these parameters can be easily modified to meet the specific needs of the end user.
We and others have explored the use of the high-resolution microendoscope (HRME) in in vitro cell culture 2-5, in excised 6 and living animal tissues 2,5, and in human tissues in vivo 2,7. Users have reported the use of several different fluorescent contrast agents, including proflavine 2-4, benzoporphyrin-derivative monoacid ring A (BPD-MA) 5, and fluoroscein 6,7, all of which have received full, or investigational approval from the FDA for use in human subjects. High-resolution microendoscopy, in the form described here, may appeal to a wide range of researchers working in the basic and clinical sciences. The technique offers an effective and economical approach which complements traditional benchtop microscopy, by enabling the user to perform high-resolution, longitudinal imaging in situ.

High-resolution Fiber-optic Microendoscopy for in situ Cellular Imaging

In many biological and clinical situations it is advantageous to study cellular processes as they evolve in their native microenvironment. Here we describe the assembly and use of a low-cost fiber-optic microscope which can provide real time imaging in cell culture, animal studies, and clinical patient studies.

Many biological and clinical studies require the longitudinal study and analysis of morphology and function with cellular level resolution.  ...

Microfluidic-based Electrotaxis for On-demand Quantitative Analysis of Caenorhabditis elegans' Locomotion

The nematode Caenorhabditis elegans is a versatile model organism for biomedical research because of its conservation of disease-related genes and pathways as well as its ease of cultivation. Several C. elegans disease models have been reported, including neurodegenerative disorders such as Parkinson's disease (PD), which involves the degeneration of dopaminergic (DA) neurons 1. Both transgenes and neurotoxic chemicals have been used to induce DA neurodegeneration and consequent movement defects in worms, allowing for investigations into the basis of neurodegeneration and screens for neuroprotective genes and compounds 2,3.
Screens in lower eukaryotes like C. elegans provide an efficient and economical means to identify compounds and genes affecting neuronal signaling. Conventional screens are typically performed manually and scored by visual inspection; consequently, they are time-consuming and prone to human errors. Additionally, most focus on cellular level analysis while ignoring locomotion, which is an especially important parameter for movement disorders.
We have developed a novel microfluidic screening system (Figure 1) that controls and quantifies C. elegans' locomotion using electric field stimuli inside microchannels. We have shown that a Direct Current (DC) field can robustly induce on-demand locomotion towards the cathode ("electrotaxis") 4. Reversing the field's polarity causes the worm to quickly reverse its direction as well. We have also shown that defects in dopaminergic and other sensory neurons alter the swimming response 5. Therefore, abnormalities in neuronal signaling can be determined using locomotion as a read-out. The movement response can be accurately quantified using a range of parameters such as swimming speed, body bending frequency and reversal time.
Our work has revealed that the electrotactic response varies with age. Specifically, young adults respond to a lower range of electric fields and move faster compared to larvae 4. These findings led us to design a new microfluidic device to passively sort worms by age and phenotype 6.
We have also tested the response of worms to pulsed DC and Alternating Current (AC) electric fields. Pulsed DC fields of various duty cycles effectively generated electrotaxis in both C. elegans and its cousin C. briggsae 7. In another experiment, symmetrical AC fields with frequencies ranging from 1 Hz to 3 KHz immobilized worms inside the channel 8.
Implementation of the electric field in a microfluidic environment enables rapid and automated execution of the electrotaxis assay. This approach promises to facilitate high-throughput genetic and chemical screens for factors affecting neuronal function and viability.

Microfluidic-based Electrotaxis for On-demand Quantitative Analysis of Caenorhabditis elegans&#039; Locomotion

A semi-automated micro-electro-fluidic method to induce on-demand locomotion in Caenorhabditis elegans is described. This method is based on the neurophysiologic phenomenon of worms responding to mild electric fields (&#x201C;electrotaxis&#x201D;) inside microfluidic channels. Microfluidic electrotaxis serves as a rapid, sensitive, low-cost, and scalable technique to screen for factors affecting neuronal health.

The nematode Caenorhabditis elegans is a versatile model organism for biomedical research because of its conservation of disease-related genes and ...

Creating Adhesive and Soluble Gradients for Imaging Cell Migration with Fluorescence Microscopy

Cells can sense and migrate towards higher concentrations of adhesive cues such as the glycoproteins of the extracellular matrix and soluble cues such as growth factors. Here, we outline a method to create opposing gradients of adhesive and soluble cues in a microfluidic chamber, which is compatible with live cell imaging. A copolymer of poly-L-lysine and polyethylene glycol (PLL-PEG) is employed to passivate glass coverslips and prevent non-specific adsorption of biomolecules and cells. Next, microcontact printing or dip pen lithography are used to create tracks of streptavidin on the passivated surfaces to serve as anchoring points for the biotinylated peptide arginine-glycine-aspartic acid (RGD) as the adhesive cue. A microfluidic device is placed onto the modified surface and used to create the gradient of adhesive cues (100% RGD to 0% RGD) on the streptavidin tracks. Finally, the same microfluidic device is used to create a gradient of a chemoattractant such as fetal bovine serum (FBS), as the soluble cue in the opposite direction of the gradient of adhesive cues.

A method for the assembly of adhesive and soluble gradients in a microscopy chamber for live cell migration studies is described. The engineered environment combines antifouling surfaces and adhesive tracks with solution gradients and therefore allows one to determine the relative importance of guidance cues.

Cells can sense and migrate towards higher concentrations of adhesive cues such as the glycoproteins of the extracellular matrix and soluble cues such as ...

Fluorescence-quenching of a Liposomal-encapsulated Near-infrared Fluorophore as a Tool for In Vivo Optical Imaging

Optical imaging offers a wide range of diagnostic modalities and has attracted a lot of interest as a tool for biomedical imaging. Despite the enormous number of imaging techniques currently available and the progress in instrumentation, there is still a need for highly sensitive probes that are suitable for in vivo imaging. One typical problem of available preclinical fluorescent probes is their rapid clearance in vivo, which reduces their imaging sensitivity. To circumvent rapid clearance, increase number of dye molecules at the target site, and thereby reduce background autofluorescence, encapsulation of the near-infrared fluorescent dye, DY-676-COOH in liposomes and verification of its potential for in vivo imaging of inflammation was done. DY-676 is known for its ability to self-quench at high concentrations. We first determined the concentration suitable for self-quenching, and then encapsulated this quenching concentration into the aqueous interior of PEGylated liposomes. To substantiate the quenching and activation potential of the liposomes we use a harsh freezing method which leads to damage of liposomal membranes without affecting the encapsulated dye. The liposomes characterized by a high level of fluorescence quenching were termed Lip-Q. We show by experiments with different cell lines that uptake of Lip-Q is predominantly by phagocytosis which in turn enabled the characterization of its potential as a tool for in vivo imaging of inflammation in mice models. Furthermore, we use a zymosan-induced edema model in mice to substantiate the potential of Lip-Q in optical imaging of inflammation in vivo. Considering possible uptake due to inflammation-induced enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect, an always-on liposome formulation with low, non-quenched concentration of DY-676-COOH (termed Lip-dQ) and the free DY-676-COOH were compared with Lip-Q in animal trials.

Fluorescence-quenching of a Liposomal-encapsulated Near-infrared Fluorophore as a Tool for In Vivo Optical Imaging

The use of fluorophores for in vivo imaging can be greatly limited by opsonization, rapid clearance, low detection sensitivity and cytotoxic effects on the host. Encapsulation of fluorophores in liposomes by film hydration and extrusion leads to fluorescence quenching and protection which enables in vivo imaging with high detection sensitivity.

Optical imaging offers a wide range of diagnostic modalities and has attracted a lot of interest as a tool for biomedical imaging. Despite the enormous ...

Rapid Scan Electron Paramagnetic Resonance Opens New Avenues for Imaging Physiologically Important Parameters In Vivo

We demonstrate a superior method of 2D spectral-spatial imaging of stable radical reporter molecules at 250 MHz using rapid-scan electron-paramagnetic-resonance (RS-EPR), which can provide quantitative information under in vivo conditions on oxygen concentration, pH, redox status and concentration of signaling molecules (i.e., OH&#8226;, NO&#8226;). The RS-EPR technique has a higher sensitivity, improved spatial resolution (1 mm), and shorter acquisition time in comparison to the standard continuous wave (CW) technique. A variety of phantom configurations have been tested, with spatial resolution varying from 1 to 6 mm, and spectral width of the reporter molecules ranging from 16 &#181;T (160 mG) to 5 mT (50 G). A cross-loop bimodal resonator decouples excitation and detection, reducing the noise, while the rapid scan effect allows more power to be input to the spin system before saturation, increasing the EPR signal. This leads to a substantially higher signal-to-noise ratio than in conventional CW EPR experiments.

Rapid Scan Electron Paramagnetic Resonance Opens New Avenues for Imaging Physiologically Important Parameters In Vivo

A new electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) method, rapid scan EPR (RS-EPR), is demonstrated for 2D spectral spatial imaging which is superior to the traditional continuous wave (CW) technique and opens new venues for in vivo imaging. Results are demonstrated at 250 MHz, but the technique is applicable at any frequency.

We demonstrate a superior method of 2D spectral-spatial imaging of stable radical reporter molecules at 250 MHz using rapid-scan ...

Correlative Light Electron Microscopy (CLEM) for Tracking and Imaging Viral Protein Associated Structures in Cryo-immobilized Cells

Due to its high resolution, electron microscopy (EM) is an indispensable tool for virologists. However, one of the main difficulties when analyzing virus-infected or transfected cells via EM are the low efficiencies of infection or transfection, hindering the examination of these cells. In order to overcome this difficulty, light microscopy (LM) can be performed first to allocate the subpopulation of infected or transfected cells. Thus, taking advantage of the use of fluorescent proteins (FPs) fused to viral proteins, LM is used here to record the positions of the "positive-transfected" cells, expressing a FP and growing on a support with an alphanumeric pattern. Subsequently, cells are further processed for EM via high pressure freezing (HPF), freeze substitution (FS) and resin embedding. The ultra-rapid freezing step ensures excellent membrane preservation of the selected cells that can then be analyzed at the ultrastructural level by transmission electron microscopy (TEM). Here, a step-by-step correlative light electron microscopy (CLEM) workflow is provided, describing sample preparation, imaging and correlation in detail. The experimental design can be also applied to address many cell biology questions.

Correlative Light Electron Microscopy CLEM for Tracking and Imaging Viral Protein Associated Structures in Cryo-immobilized Cells

A correlative light electron microscopy (CLEM) method is applied to image virus-induced intracellular structures via electron microscopy (EM) in cells that are previously selected by light microscopy (LM). LM and EM are combined as a hybrid imaging approach to achieve an integrated view of virus-host interactions.

Due to its high resolution, electron microscopy (EM) is an indispensable tool for virologists. However, one of the main difficulties when analyzing ...

Measuring the Spin-Lattice Relaxation Magnetic Field Dependence of Hyperpolarized [1-13C]pyruvate

The fundamental limit to in vivo imaging applications of hyperpolarized 13C-enriched compounds is their finite spin-lattice relaxation times. Various factors affect the relaxation rates, such as buffer composition, solution pH, temperature, and magnetic field. In this last regard, the spin-lattice relaxation time can be measured at clinical field strengths, but at lower fields, where these compounds are dispensed from the polarizer and transported to the MRI, the relaxation is even faster and difficult to measure. To have a better understanding of the amount of magnetization lost during transport, we used fast field-cycling relaxometry, with magnetic resonance detection of 13C nuclei at ~0.75 T, to measure the nuclear magnetic resonance dispersion of the spin-lattice relaxation time of hyperpolarized [1-13C]pyruvate. Dissolution dynamic nuclear polarization was used to produce hyperpolarized samples of pyruvate at a concentration of 80 mmol/L and physiological pH (~7.8). These solutions were rapidly transferred to a fast field-cycling relaxometer so that relaxation of the sample magnetization could be measured as a function of time using a calibrated small flip angle (3&#176;-5&#176;). To map the T1 dispersion of the C-1 of pyruvate, we recorded data for different relaxation fields ranging between 0.237 mT and 0.705 T. With this information, we determined an empirical equation to estimate the spin-lattice relaxation of the hyperpolarized substrate within the mentioned range of magnetic fields. These results can be used to predict the amount of magnetization lost during transport and to improve experimental designs to minimize signal loss.

Measuring the Spin-Lattice Relaxation Magnetic Field Dependence of Hyperpolarized [1-13C]pyruvate

We present a protocol to measure the magnetic field dependence of the spin-lattice relaxation time of 13C-enriched compounds, hyperpolarized by means of dynamic nuclear polarization, using fast field-cycled relaxometry. Specifically, we have demonstrated this with [1-13C]pyruvate, but the protocol could be extended to other hyperpolarized substrates.

The fundamental limit to in vivo imaging applications of hyperpolarized 13C-enriched compounds is their finite spin-lattice relaxation times. Various ...

Blood Flow Imaging with Ultrafast Doppler

The pulsed-Doppler effect is the main technique used in clinical echography to assess blood flow. Applied with conventional focused ultrasound Doppler modes, it has several limits. Firstly, a finely tuned signal filtering operation is needed to distinguish blood flows from surrounding moving tissues. Secondly, the operator must choose between localizing the blood flows or quantifying them. In the last two decades, ultrasound imaging has undergone a paradigm shift with the emergence of ultrafast ultrasound using unfocused waves. In addition to a hundredfold increase in framerate (up to 10000 Hz), this new technique also breaks the conventional quantification/localization trade-off, offering a complete blood flow mapping of the field of view and a simultaneous access to fine velocities measurements at the single-pixel level (down to 50 &#181;m). This data continuity in both spatial and temporal dimensions strongly improves the tissue/blood filtering process, which results in an increase sensitivity to small blood flow velocities (down to 1 mm/s). In this method paper, we aim to introduce the concept of ultrafast Doppler as well as its main parameters. Firstly, we summarize the physical principles of unfocused wave imaging. Then, we present the Doppler signal processing main steps. Particularly, we explain the practical implementation of the critical tissue/blood flow separation algorithms and on the extraction of velocities from these filtered data. This theoretical description is supplemented by in vitro experiences. A tissue phantom embedding a canal with flowing blood-mimicking fluid is imaged with a research programmable ultrasound system. A blood flow image is obtained and the flow characteristics are displayed for several pixels in the canal. Finally, a review of in vivo applications is proposed, showing examples in several organs such as carotids, kidney, thyroid, brain and heart.

This protocol shows how to apply ultrafast ultrasound Doppler imaging to quantify blood flows. After a 1 s long acquisition, the experimenter has access to a movie of the full field of view with axial velocity values for each pixel every &#8776;0.3 ms (depending on the ultrasound time of flight).

The pulsed-Doppler effect is the main technique used in clinical echography to assess blood flow. Applied with conventional focused ultrasound Doppler ...

Establishing an Octopus Ecosystem for Biomedical and Bioengineering Research

Many developments in biomedical research have been inspired by discovering anatomical and cellular mechanisms that support specific functions in different species. The octopus is one of these exceptional animals that has given scientists new insights into the fields of neuroscience, robotics, regenerative medicine, and prosthetics. Research with this species of cephalopods requires the set-up of complex facilities and intensive care for both the octopus and its ecosystem that is critical for the project&#39;s success. This system requires multiple mechanical and biological filtering systems to provide a safe and clean environment for the animal. Along with the control system, specialized routine maintenance and cleaning are required to effectively keep the facility operating long term. It is advised to provide an enriched environment to these intelligent animals by changing the tank&#39;s landscape, incorporating a variety of prey, and introducing challenging tasks for them to work through. Our results include MRI and a whole-body autofluorescence imaging as well as behavioral studies to better understand their nervous system. Octopuses possess unique physiology that can impact many areas of biomedical research. Providing them with a sustainable ecosystem is the first crucial step in uncovering their distinct capabilities.

Understanding the unique physiological and anatomical structures of octopuses can greatly impact biomedical research. This guide demonstrates how to set-up and maintain a marine environment to accommodate this species and includes state-of-the-art imaging and analytical approaches to visualize octopus' nervous system anatomy and function.

Many developments in biomedical research have been inspired by discovering anatomical and cellular mechanisms that support specific functions in different ...

Bioorthogonal Chemical Imaging of Cell Metabolism Regulated by Aromatic Amino Acids

Essential aromatic amino acids (AAAs) are building blocks for synthesizing new biomasses in cells and sustaining normal biological functions. For example, an abundant supply of AAAs is important for cancer cells to maintain their rapid growth and division. With this, there is a rising demand for a highly specific, noninvasive imaging approach with minimal sample preparation to directly visualize how cells harness AAAs for their metabolism in situ. Here, we develop an optical imaging platform that combines deuterium oxide (D2O) probing with stimulated Raman scattering (DO-SRS) and integrates DO-SRS with two-photon excitation fluorescence (2PEF) into a single microscope to directly visualize the metabolic activities of HeLa cells under AAA regulation. Collectively, the DO-SRS platform provides high spatial resolution and specificity of newly synthesized proteins and lipids in single HeLa cell units. In addition, the 2PEF modality can detect autofluorescence signals of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH) and Flavin in a label-free manner. The imaging system described here is compatible with both in vitro and in vivo models, which is flexible for various experiments. The general workflow of this protocol includes cell culture, culture media preparation, cell synchronization, cell fixation, and sample imaging with DO-SRS and 2PEF modalities.

We present a protocol to directly visualize metabolic activities in cells regulated by amino acids using deuterium-oxide (heavy water D2O) probed stimulated Raman scattering (DO-SRS) microscopy, which is integrated with two-photon excitation fluorescence microscopy (2PEF).

Essential aromatic amino acids (AAAs) are building blocks for synthesizing new biomasses in cells and sustaining normal biological functions. For example, ...