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Research

2D NMR: Overview of Heteronuclear Correlation Techniques

Heteronuclear correlation spectroscopy is an analytical technique that investigates the coupling between different types of nuclei, often a proton and an X-nucleus, such as carbon-13 or nitrogen-15. This method is commonly used in nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy to gain insights into complex chemical compounds&#39; structural and compositional aspects. A typical heteronuclear correlation spectrum displays X-nucleus chemical shifts on one axis and a proton spectrum on the other axis. Cross-peaks reveal the connection between specific protons and X-nuclei.
The main heteronuclear correlation experiments include HETCOR, HSQC, HMQC, and HMBC. HSQC, HMQC, and HMBC record the proton spectrum, whereas the X-nucleus spectrum is recorded by standard heteronuclear correlation spectroscopy or HETCOR. The HETCOR-HMQC-HSQC group of experiments cannot detect X-nuclei without an attached proton. HETCOR is used when ultrahigh peak resolution is required along the X-nucleus axis.
The heteronuclear single quantum correlation technique, or HSQC, investigates proton-to-X-nucleus single bond correlations. In an HSQC experiment, polarization is transferred from a proton nucleus to a neighboring X-nucleus and then back to the proton nucleus. The signal from the proton nuclei is then recorded. HSQC generates a spectrum like that of heteronuclear multiple-quantum correlation spectroscopy or HMQC but uses a different suppression method, providing better X-nucleus resolution along the axis.
Heteronuclear multiple-bond correlation, or HMBC, is a proton-detected experiment, like HMQC but with a longer initial delay time. This experiment is used to observe long-range proton to X-nucleus connectivity separated by 2-3 bonds, with some experiments going out to 4 or 5 bonds. In an HMBC experiment, direct one-bond correlations are suppressed as part of the sequence. The spectra of HMBC give rise to cross peaks that correlate which protons are coupled to what other specific X-nucleus is more than one bond away. The gradient HMBC (gHMBC) pulse sequence offers better suppression of interfering signals, making it particularly useful for analyzing complex molecules with overlapping signals.

Heteronuclear correlation spectroscopy is an analytical technique that investigates the coupling between different types of nuclei, often a proton and an ...

2D NMR: Heteronuclear Single-Quantum Correlation Spectroscopy (HSQC)

Heteronuclear single-quantum correlation spectroscopy (HSQC) is a 2D NMR technique that reveals one-bond correlations between hydrogen and a heteronucleus. The HSQC experiment is similar to the heteronuclear correlation experiment (HETCOR) but is more sensitive. In the HSQC spectrum, the proton chemical shift is plotted on the horizontal F2 axis, while the 13C chemical shift is plotted on the vertical F1 axis. The corresponding proton and 13C spectra are also shown. The HSQC contour plot does not have any diagonal peaks. All the cross-peaks indicate the protons directly attached to each carbon in a molecule. Similar to the COSY spectrum, imaginary lines are drawn in horizontal and vertical directions to identify the correlated peaks.
For example, the HSQC spectrum of 2-chlorobutane has a carbon signal at 11 ppm that can be assigned to the shielded methyl group and correlated to the proton multiplet at 1.01 ppm. The carbon signal at 24.8 ppm arises from the deshielded methyl group, which correlates to the proton multiplet at 1.52 ppm. Similarly, the methylene carbon signal at 33.3 ppm and methine carbon signal at 60.4 ppm correlate to the multiplets at 1.72 and 3.96 ppm, respectively.&#160; HSQC is a very useful technique for structurally elucidating complex molecules and is routinely used in protein NMR studies.

Heteronuclear single-quantum correlation spectroscopy (HSQC) is a 2D NMR technique that reveals one-bond correlations between hydrogen and a ...

2D NMR: Overview of Homonuclear Correlation Techniques

Homonuclear correlation spectroscopy (COSY) is a powerful technique used in Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) spectroscopy to study the correlations between nuclei of the same type within a molecule. It provides information about scalar couplings between adjacent nuclei, which helps determine connectivity and structural information. There are several COSY variants, each with its unique strengths and experimental parameters.
COSY90 is the standard two-dimensional (2D) COSY experiment that utilizes a second 90-degree pulse to achieve high sensitivity and resolution. It excels in analyzing small to medium-sized molecules and provides information on directly coupled protons. COSY45, similar to COSY90, uses 45-degree pulses instead of 90-degree pulses. This results in reduced sensitivity but improved resolution.
Long-range COSY (LR-COSY) extends the COSY experiment to detect scalar couplings between nuclei further apart in the molecule. It achieves this by combining multiple pulse sequences and magnetization transfers.
Relayed COSY is a variant of COSY that adds extra pulses to the standard pulse sequence to produce cross-peaks between cross-peaks, showing specific molecular connections hidden by overlapping signals.
TOCSY (Total Correlation Spectroscopy), also known as HOHAHA (Homonuclear Hartmann-Hahn Spectroscopy), reveals all through-bond connectivity between all coupled nuclei. TOCSY is especially useful for analyzing molecules with overlapping signals and complex coupling patterns.
NOESY (Nuclear Overhauser Effect Spectroscopy) measures the nuclear overhauser effect, which arises from dipole-dipole interactions between nuclei. It provides information about spatial proximity and can be used to determine the three-dimensional structure of a molecule.
ROESY (Rotating-frame Overhauser Enhancement Spectroscopy) is similar to NOESY but employs a different mechanism to obtain through-space correlations. It provides information about spatial proximity and is particularly useful for studying molecules with weak NOE signals.
In conclusion, choosing a COSY variant depends on the molecule or reaction under investigation and the desired information. The right COSY variant can be determined based on molecular size, coupling complexity, and the need for spatial or long-range connectivity data.

Homonuclear correlation spectroscopy (COSY) is a powerful technique used in Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) spectroscopy to study the correlations ...

Insensitive Nuclei Enhanced by Polarization Transfer (INEPT)

Insensitive Nuclei Enhanced by Polarization Transfer (INEPT) is an advanced Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) technique specifically designed to detect and enhance the signals of low-abundance nuclei, such as carbon-13 and nitrogen-15, in small molecules. The fundamental principle behind INEPT is the transfer of polarization from a more abundant and highly polarizable nucleus, typically hydrogen-1, to the low-abundance nucleus of interest. This process effectively boosts the NMR signal of the low-abundance nuclei, making them more easily detectable.
The INEPT technique involves a series of carefully timed radiofrequency (RF) pulses applied to the sample. These RF pulses excite the more abundant nuclei, causing them to align their spins in a specific manner. Through the process of spin coupling, the polarization of the more abundant nuclei is then transferred to the low-abundance nuclei. As a result, the NMR signal of these low-abundance nuclei is significantly enhanced, allowing for a more detailed analysis of the molecular structure.
Various pulse sequences have been developed to improve the observability of these low-abundance nuclei when coupled to a high-receptivity nucleus. The INEPT pulse sequence combines a spin echo and selective population inversion, which includes 90&#176; and 180&#176; pulses on the high-sensitivity (the I spins) and low-sensitivity nuclei (the S spins), respectively. Coupling-constant-based delays between pulses facilitate magnetization transfer through space or bond interactions. Additional RF pulses and delays invert the low-gamma magnetization, producing an observable NMR signal. The net result is an enhanced NMR signal from low-gamma nuclei that would otherwise be challenging to detect.
Various pulse sequences have been developed to improve the detection of low-abundance nuclei when coupled with high-receptivity nuclei such as protons. The INEPT sequence yields enhanced signals for insensitive nuclei, with half of the CH group producing negative peaks and the other half positive peaks. This pattern allows for discrimination between different types of carbon-hydrogen bonds within the molecule.
Decoupling methods can be employed to enhance sensitivity and resolution in distinguishing various carbon-hydrogen bonds, making INEPT an invaluable tool in the chemical and pharmaceutical industries.

Insensitive Nuclei Enhanced by Polarization Transfer (INEPT) is an advanced Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) technique specifically designed to detect and ...

Two-Dimensional (2D) NMR: Overview

The 1D NMR spectrum of large and complex molecules like natural products has complicated splitting patterns and overlapping signals, which can be easily interpreted using 2-dimensional (2D) NMR. Unlike 1D NMR, 2D NMR has two frequency axes that provide the coupling information between the nucleus A and nucleus B in a molecule. The process from which 2D spectra are obtained has four steps.
The first step is the preparation period, during which nucleus A is excited with a radiofrequency pulse. The second step is the evolution or wait period t1, which is incremented systematically, and no data is observed during this period. The next step is the mixing period, in which a second radiofrequency pulse is introduced, which transfers the magnetization to the spins of nucleus B. In the last step, the magnetization of nuclear spins from B is detected during the acquisition time t2 for each t1. Time domains t1 and t2 are Fourier transformed into frequency domains f1 and f2, and these correspond to two dimensions of 2D spectra, while the third dimension is the intensity. In 2D experiments, coupling between the same kind of nucleus is called homonuclear 2D experiments, whereas coupling between two types of nucleus is called heteronuclear 2D experiments. 2D spectra can be displayed as stacked or contour plots. When presented as stacked plots, 2D spectra are difficult to interpret. The contour plot is the horizontal cross-section of a stacked plot where the size of the circles shows the signal intensity. Its interpretation is straightforward and it is preferred for data analysis.

The 1D NMR spectrum of large and complex molecules like natural products has complicated splitting patterns and overlapping signals, which can be easily ...

2D NMR: Homonuclear Correlation Spectroscopy (COSY)

Homonuclear correlation spectroscopy, or COSY, is a 2-dimensional NMR technique that provides information about coupled protons. Typically, the geminal and vicinal coupling are observed. For example, consider the COSY spectrum of ethyl acetate, where its 1D proton NMR spectrum is plotted along the vertical and horizontal axes with their corresponding chemical shift scale. Three spots on the diagonal corresponding to the three peaks in the 1D proton spectrum are called diagonal peaks. The COSY spectrum is symmetric about the diagonal, with signals above and below the diagonal called cross-peaks or off-diagonal peaks. An imaginary line is drawn from diagonal peaks parallel to the horizontal axis, leading to a cross peak. A vertical line is then drawn from the same cross peak towards the diagonal peak to correlate the peaks. The off-diagonal peaks correlating the multiplets at 1.25 and 4.2 ppm indicate that the methyl protons are coupled to the methylene protons. The signal at 2 ppm is not associated with cross-peaks because the protons are not involved in homonuclear coupling. A COSY spectrum is useful when overlapping multiplets complicate the corresponding 1D spectrum.

Homonuclear correlation spectroscopy, or COSY, is a 2-dimensional NMR technique that provides information about coupled protons. Typically, the geminal ...

Double Resonance Techniques: Overview

Double resonance techniques in Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) spectroscopy involve the simultaneous application of two different frequencies or radiofrequency pulses to manipulate and observe two distinct nuclear spins. One important application of double resonance is spin decoupling, which selectively suppresses coupling with one type of nucleus while observing the NMR signal from another nucleus, simplifying the spectrum and enhancing resolution.
Spin decoupling is usually achieved by irradiating the sample atoms with a suitable radio frequency (rf) pulse sequence, effectively eliminating all the coupling with one nuclide. This simplifies the observed spectrum, making it easier to analyze and understand the relationships between different nuclei.
Double resonance experiments can be classified as heteronuclear or homonuclear, depending on whether the two sets of nuclei are of different isotopes or the same isotope, respectively. They can also be selective or nonselective, depending on whether the irradiating frequency covers only a portion or all of the resonance frequencies.
In nonselective heteronuclear decoupling, samples are exposed to an appropriate radiofrequency range to remove all coupling with one nuclide. However, increased external field strengths necessitate more powerful irradiation across broader frequency ranges. In certain instruments, continuous irradiation creates enough heat to cause damage to thermally sensitive samples.
To overcome these problems, modern methods using a series of pulses and exact timing delays, like J-modulated spin echo pulse sequences, can be employed to eliminate or adjust coupling effects within the spectrum.
For example, the attached proton transfer (APT) experiment applies a J-modulated spin echo pulse sequence to focus on the phase of detected carbon signals. Carbon atoms attached to an even number of protons exhibit positive signals in the spectrum, while those bonded to an odd number of protons appear as negative signals.
It utilizes a combination of a 180&#176; proton pulse and broadband decoupling to simplify spectral interpretation and assign multiplicities. The 180&#176; pulse is applied to the protons during the APT experiment. Its role is to refocus the spin coupling evolution that naturally occurs due to interactions between protons and carbons.
Specifically, after the 90&#176; pulse creates transverse magnetization, the 180&#176; pulse ensures that the effects of coupling are frozen during the initial period where the decoupler is turned off. This means the chemical shifts evolve only during the time 1/J&#8203; (the coupling constant period) after the first 180&#176; pulse.
By carefully timing this pulse sequence, the experiment isolates carbon multiplicities by utilizing the J-coupling between carbons and their attached protons. After the coupling evolution period (1/J&#8203;), broadband decoupling is turned on. This removes the J-coupling signals, collapsing multiplets into single peaks for each carbon resonance.
The decoupling ensures that carbon signals are free of splitting, allowing for a clear differentiation of signals based on phase (positive or negative) rather than splitting patterns.
The APT technique selectively enhances carbon signals, providing valuable information about carbon-proton connectivity, the number of attached hydrogen atoms, and the overall molecular structure.

Double resonance techniques in Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) spectroscopy involve the simultaneous application of two different frequencies or ...

Nuclear Overhauser Enhancement (NOE)

Irradiation of a spin-active nucleus causes an increase or decrease in the signal intensity of neighboring nuclei that are not necessarily chemically bonded or involved in J-coupling. &#160;This phenomenon, called the Nuclear Overhauser Enhancement (NOE), results from through-space interactions between the nuclear spins. The NOE effect decreases with increasing internuclear distance and is generally not observed beyond 4 angstroms. In NOE, dipole-dipole interactions between neighboring spin-active nuclei result in the transfer of nuclear spin polarization. These interactions can cause an increase or decrease in the signal intensity, which results in a positive or negative NOE, respectively.
NOE can be applied to improve the signal intensity of less sensitive nuclei such as carbon-13. Proton-decoupled carbon-13 spectra show a positive NOE effect, where the carbon signal intensities are substantially increased compared to those in proton-coupled spectra.
Targeted irradiation of specific nuclei can also reveal through-space proximity, which helps confirm stereochemistry and verify spectral peak assignments. The NOE effect is also applied in 2D NMR experiments, such as Nuclear Overhauser Effect Spectroscopy (NOESY), to determine the 3D structure of proteins.

Irradiation of a spin-active nucleus causes an increase or decrease in the signal intensity of neighboring nuclei that are not necessarily chemically ...

&sup1;H NMR of Labile Protons:  Deuterium (&sup2;H) Substitution

This lesson illustrates the role of deuterium substitution in simplifying the NMR spectrum of compounds comprising labile protons. One method employed is the use of deuterium. Amongst the three isotopes of hydrogen, deuterium (2H) has a nucleus composed of one proton and one neutron. When the D2O solvent is added to a pure dry ethanol solution, its labile proton is substituted with deuterium.
<img alt="Figure1" src="/files/ftp_upload/12280/12280-PT_Figure_1.svg" style="text-align: center; height: 700px;" />
Figure 1. The comparison of the proton NMR spectra of pure dry ethanol and the same in D2O solvent.
The signals from deuterium are not observed in a proton NMR spectrum, as deuterium&#8211;proton coupling is negligible, and no spin-spin splitting occurs between them. As shown in Figure 1, the NMR spectra of pure ethanol and ethanol in deuterium, the disappearance of the triplet in the latter, confirms that it corresponds to the labile &#8211;OH proton. Furthermore, the methylene protons that initially showed up as a multiplet transform to a quartet, proving that the multiplet is due to the coupling with the &#8211;OH proton and the methyl protons.

This lesson illustrates the role of deuterium substitution in simplifying the NMR spectrum of compounds comprising labile protons. One method employed is ...

&sup1;H NMR of Conformationally Flexible Molecules: Variable-Temperature NMR

The axial and equatorial protons in cyclohexane can be distinguished by performing a variable-temperature NMR experiment. In this process, except for one proton, the remaining eleven protons are replaced by deuterium. The deuterium substitution avoids the possible peak splitting caused by the spin-spin coupling between the adjacent protons. The remaining proton flips between the axial and equatorial positions.
<img alt="Figure1" src="/files/ftp_upload/13016/13016-PT_Figure_1.svg" style="text-align: center; height: 480px;" />
Figure 1. The temperature-dependent proton NMR spectra of cyclohexane.
Figure 1 depicts the proton NMR spectrum of the deuterium substituted sample, recorded at various temperatures. At room temperature, the rapid ring flipping of cyclohexane results in a single sharp peak. As the temperature is lowered to &#8722;60&#176;C, the rate of chair-chair interconversion reduces, resulting in the broadening of the peak.
Further lowering of the temperature broadens the peak, forming a saddle that splits into two peaks. On reaching a temperature lower than &#8722;89&#176;C, two sharp, well-resolved peaks corresponding to the equatorial and axial protons are formed. The peaks corresponding to the equatorial and axial protons occur at &#948; 1.62 and 1.14, respectively. At such low temperatures, the rate of chair-chair interconversion is reduced significantly, enabling the detection of the two distinct sets of protons on the NMR time scale.

The axial and equatorial protons in cyclohexane can be distinguished by performing a variable-temperature NMR experiment. In this process, except for one ...

&sup1;H NMR of Labile Protons: Temporal Resolution

Protons bonded to heteroatoms such as nitrogen and oxygen exhibit a range of chemical shift values. This is due to the varying degree of hydrogen bonding between the proton and the heteroatom in other molecules. The extent of hydrogen bonding affects the electron density around the proton, thereby giving different chemical shift values for the protons in the proton NMR spectrum.
The &#8211;OH proton in alcohols typically appears in the range of &#948; 2 to 5 ppm but can vary depending on the specific alcohol and conditions. This &#8211;OH proton undergoes rapid proton exchange with other molecules and is referred to as a labile proton. So, the exact &#948; value of the &#8211;OH proton and the spin-spin coupling involving the &#8211;OH proton and the other protons in the alcohol depends on the rate of the &#8211;OH proton exchange. The proton exchange rate, in turn, depends on multiple factors, including the purity of the alcohol sample, temperature, and solvent.
<img alt="Figure1" src="/files/ftp_upload/12279/12279-PT_Figure_1.svg" style="text-align: center; height: 350px;" />
Figure 1. The triplet of a &#8211;OH proton in the proton NMR spectrum of neat ethanol.
For example, the &#8211;OH proton exchange in a pure dry ethanol sample is very slow on the NMR time scale, giving enough time for the spin-spin coupling. Consequently, as depicted in Figure 1, the proton NMR spectrum of pure dry ethanol shows a triplet for the &#8211;OH proton due to the spin-spin coupling with adjacent methylene protons. The methylene protons are seen as a multiplet due to the coupling with the &#8211;OH proton and the methyl protons.
The presence of trace amounts of an acid or base increases the proton exchange rate. The proton exchange becomes rapid, and the NMR spectrometer only records an average of all the possible environments for the &#8211;OH proton.
<img alt="Figure2" src="/files/ftp_upload/12279/12279-PT_Figure_2.svg" style="text-align: center; height: 325px;" />
Figure 2. The broad singlet of a &#8211;OH proton in the proton NMR spectrum of neat ethanol.
As a result, as recorded in Figure 2, the &#8211;OH proton exhibits a broad singlet. The protons from the adjacent methylene group present a quartet where the splitting is caused only by the adjoining methyl group.

Protons bonded to heteroatoms such as nitrogen and oxygen exhibit a range of chemical shift values. This is due to the varying degree of hydrogen bonding ...

&sup1;H NMR of Conformationally Flexible Molecules: Temporal Resolution

At room temperature, the chair conformer of cyclohexane undergoes rapid ring flipping between two equivalent chair conformers at a rate of approximately 105 times per second. These two chair conformers are in equilibrium. The rapid ring flipping results in the interconversion of the axial proton to an equatorial proton and an equatorial to the axial proton. Such interconversions are too rapid and cannot be detected on the NMR timescale. Hence, the NMR spectrometer cannot distinguish between the axial and equatorial protons, resulting in a single peak at &#948; 1.4.
Similarly, NMR averages all the conformations of any molecule with rapid conformational equilibria. For example, the CH3 protons in bromoethane have a single resonance and coupling constant for splitting by the CH2 protons due to the rapid internal rotation of the carbon-carbon bond. Lastly, besides conformational equilibria, the time-averaging effect of NMR spectroscopy is also observed in some chemical reactions.

At room temperature, the chair conformer of cyclohexane undergoes rapid ring flipping between two equivalent chair conformers at a rate of approximately ...

Chemical Ionization (CI) Mass Spectrometry

The molecular ion peak of a molecule in the mass spectrum provides vital information for molecular identification. However, conventional electron impact ionization can lead to the rapid dissociation of some molecular ions before they reach the detector. A milder ionization method is required to increase the lifetime of such ionized analyte molecules. Chemical ionization (CI) is a gas-phase protonation reaction useful for mass-analyzing analyte molecules that are easily protonated to yield the corresponding conjugate acid. In this process, the sample is mixed with an excess reagent gas, which ensures the electron impact occurs primarily on the reagent gas. The charged species formed from the reagent protonates the analyte molecule, producing a relatively stable protonated analyte (conjugate acid) compared to the molecular ion. This results in an M+1 peak in the mass spectrum. The conjugate acid may then undergo fragmentation that generates additional signals.
For example, the CI of di-sec-butyl ether in methane gas illustrates this process. When the ether is mixed with excess methane gas as a reagent, electron impact occurs on methane rather than the ether. The resulting methane radical cation can react with another methane molecule to generate a methane radical and a methanium ion. The methanium ion is a source of gas-phase protons, which can protonate the ether to form its conjugate acid. The sequential reactions during the chemical ionization of di-sec-butyl ether are depicted in Figure 1.
<img alt="Figure1" src="/files/ftp_upload/12300/12300_PT_Figure_1.svg" style="text-align: center; height: 175px;" />
Figure 1: Chemical ionization of di-sec-butyl ether methane mixture.
This conjugate acid of the ether (m/z = 131) is relatively more stable than the molecular ion (m/z = 130) of ether formed via the conventional electron impact ionization. In the traditional route, the molecular ion undergoes fragmentation via &#945; cleavage, giving a signal at m/z = 101. Figure 2 illustrates the reactions that occur during electron impact ionization directly on di-sec-butyl ether.
<img alt="Figure2" src="/files/ftp_upload/12300/12300_PT_Figure_2.svg" style="text-align: center; height: 175px;" />
Figure 2: Electron impact ionization of di-sec-butyl ether and fragmentation of the molecular ion.
So, the mass spectra of di-sec-butyl ether ionized via CI feature an M+1 peak at m/z = 131. On the other hand, mass spectra of di-sec-butyl ether ionized via electron impact ionization do not show any peak at the m/z value of its molecular weight. Figures 3a and 3b show the mass spectra of di-sec-butyl ether ionized via the electron impact and chemical ionization methods, respectively.
<img alt="Figure3" src="/files/ftp_upload/12300/12300_PT_Figure_3.svg" style="text-align: center; height: 225px;" />
Figure 3:&#160;a) No m/z = 130 peak is visible in the mass spectrum obtained via electron impact ionization of di-sec-butyl ether. b) The m/z = 131 peak is clearly visible in the mass spectrum obtained via chemical ionization of di-sec-butyl ether.

The molecular ion peak of a molecule in the mass spectrum provides vital information for molecular identification. However, conventional electron impact ...

Mass Spectrometry: Alkyl Halide Fragmentation

Chlorine isotopes exist as 35Cl and 37Cl in a 3:1 ratio, while bromine isotopes exist as 79Br and 81Br in a 1:1 ratio. The mass spectrum of alkyl halides typically produces two distinct molecular ion peaks, the molecular ion peak, [M], and the molecular ion plus two, [M + 2] peak. The relative heights of these two peaks are proportional to the isotopic abundance ratios of the halide. For example, 2&#8208;chloropropane and 1&#8208;bromopropane display two peaks with relative peak heights in a 3:1 and 1:1 ratio, respectively.
Alkyl halides typically lose a non-bonding electron from the halogen to form molecular ions. The base peak results from the heterolytic cleavage of the carbon&#8211;halogen bond, where the bonding electrons go to the most electronegative atom, forming a cation and halogen atom. Interestingly, the &#9082;-cleavage is observed only in alkyl chlorides, not alkyl bromides. In alkyl chlorides, the&#160; C&#8211;Cl and C&#8211;C bonds exhibit similar strengths, while in alkyl bromides, the C&#8211;Br bond is weaker than the C&#8211;C bond. Consequently, the alkyl chlorides form a stable cation, where the positive charge is shared between the two atoms.
While less commonly discussed, fluoroalkanes and iodoalkanes exhibit unique fragmentation behavior. Fluoroalkanes, due to the strength of the C&#8211;F bond and the presence of only one isotope (19F), show limited fragmentation and lack isotopic peaks. Iodoalkanes, with their weak C&#8211;I bond and a single isotope (127I), predominantly fragment by losing iodine, resulting in simpler spectra with less isotopic splitting.

Chlorine isotopes exist as 35Cl and 37Cl in a 3:1 ratio, while bromine isotopes exist as 79Br and 81Br in a 1:1 ratio. The mass spectrum of alkyl halides ...

Electrospray Ionization (ESI) Mass Spectrometry

Higher molecular weight biomolecules are nonvolatile compounds that may decompose before ionizing or vaporizing during mass analysis with conventional electron impact ionization methods. Accordingly, electrospray ionization (ESI) is the favored method for vaporizing and ionizing biomolecules as it circumvents rapid fragmentation and enables the recording of mass signals for the entire biomolecule.
ESI utilizes electrical energy to transfer ions from the liquid phase of the sample into the gaseous phase. The analyte biomolecule is premixed with an ionic liquid&#8212;a nonmolecular compound serving as the ionization source. The solution is sprayed through a high-voltage capillary to generate a fine aerosol. The voltage difference applied between the capillary and the entrance of the analysis chamber causes the movement of charged droplets toward the analysis chamber. The ionic liquid from the aerosol evaporates during this movement, leaving behind a variably protonated or ionized analyte molecule. These charged species are detected in the mass spectrum at an m/z value equivalent to the sum of the analyte molecule&#39;s molecular mass and the ions&#39; molecular weight from the ionic liquid associated with the analyte molecule.
The position of mass signals varies depending on the type of cations present in the ionic liquid. For example, the presence of sodium ions in the ionic liquid leads to an (M+23) peak in the mass spectra, while the presence of a proton results in an (M+1) peak.

Higher molecular weight biomolecules are nonvolatile compounds that may decompose before ionizing or vaporizing during mass analysis with conventional ...

Matrix-Assisted Laser Desorption Ionization (MALDI)

Matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization (MALDI) is a powerful analytical technique used in mass spectrometry. It enables the identification and characterization of various biomolecules, including proteins, peptides, nucleic acids, and carbohydrates. MALDI spectrometry is widely employed in biological and medical research, as well as in fields like pharmacology and biochemistry.
The analyte of interest, a biomolecule or a mixture of biomolecules, is mixed with a suitable matrix material. The matrix is usually an organic compound, such as a small organic acid or a crystalline substance, that facilitates ionization. This analyte-matrix mixture is then deposited onto a target surface, inserted into the mass spectrometer, and dried. During drying, the matrix forms small crystals that incorporate the analyte molecules within their structure.
Once the sample is prepared, a pulsed laser is directed onto the target surface. The matrix molecules absorb the laser beam energy, causing them to heat up and vaporize rapidly. This process is known as laser desorption. As the matrix molecules vaporize, they carry the embedded analyte molecules. The vaporized analyte molecules become ionized through a process called proton transfer. The proton transfer occurs between the matrix and the analyte molecule. The matrix molecule donates a proton to the analyte molecule, resulting in the formation of protonated ions. The analyte ions are then accelerated by an electric field and further separated based on their mass-to-charge ratio in a time-of-flight mass analyzer.
The mass spectrum obtained from MALDI spectrometry provides valuable information about the mass and relative abundance of the analyzed biomolecules.

Matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization (MALDI) is a powerful analytical technique used in mass spectrometry. It enables the identification and ...

Mass Spectrometry: Carboxylic Acid, Ester, and Amide Fragmentation

The fragmentation patterns observed for compounds such as carboxylic acids, esters, and amides in the mass spectra include &#9082;-cleavage and McLafferty rearrangement. Fragmentation by &#9082;-cleavage preferentially occurs at the carbon-carbon bond at the &#9082;-position next to the carboxylic group to generate a neutral radical and a cation. Long chain compounds with hydrogen at their &#947;-carbon undergo McLafferty rearrangement to give a radical cation and a neutral alkene.
For example, the fragmentation of butyramide is demonstrated in Figure 1. The molecular ion peak of butyramide, which contains one nitrogen atom, shows an odd mass-to-charge ratio of 87. Fragmentation of butyramide molecular ion by &#9082;-cleavage produces a cation at a mass-to-charge ratio 44. In addition to &#9082;-cleavage, butyramide molecular ion also undergoes fragmentation via McLafferty rearrangement. The base peak at the mass-to-charge ratio 59 arises due to McLafferty rearrangement.
<img alt="Figure1" src="/files/ftp_upload/13051/13051_PT_Figure_1.svg" style="text-align: center; height: 250px;" />

The fragmentation patterns observed for compounds such as carboxylic acids, esters, and amides in the mass spectra include &#9082;-cleavage and McLafferty ...

Mass Spectrometry: Aldehyde and Ketone Fragmentation

In mass spectrometry, the fragmentation of aliphatic aldehydes and ketones generally occurs through three key mechanisms: &#945;-cleavage, inductive cleavage, and the McLafferty rearrangement.
<ol>
	<li>&#945;-Cleavage 
	&#945;-Cleavage is a common fragmentation in carbonyl compounds where the bond adjacent to the carbonyl group is broken. This process produces an alkyl radical and an acylium cation, which is often detected in the mass spectrum due to its stability.</li>
	<li>Inductive Cleavage 
	In inductive cleavage, fragmentation yields an acyl radical and an alkyl cation. This occurs when electrons are drawn toward the carbonyl, weakening adjacent bonds and resulting in a distinctive fragmentation pattern. For example, in the mass spectrum of 5-methyl-2-hexanone, inductive cleavage produces an alkyl cation at a mass-to-charge (m/z) ratio of 71.</li>
	<li>McLafferty Rearrangement 
	The McLafferty rearrangement is a specific fragmentation pattern for carbonyl compounds with &#947;-hydrogen (hydrogen on the third carbon from the carbonyl group). The molecule undergoes a six-membered cyclic transition in this rearrangement, yielding a radical cation and a neutral alkene. For 5-methyl-2-hexanone, this rearrangement results in a peak at m/z 58.</li>
</ol>
Example: Fragmentation of 5-methyl-2-hexanone 
In the mass spectrum of 5-methyl-2-hexanone, the molecular ion undergoes these fragmentation patterns:
<ol style="list-style-type: circle;">
	<li>Inductive cleavage produces an alkyl cation at m/z 71.</li>
	<li>&#945;-Cleavage results in the base peak at m/z 43.</li>
	<li>McLafferty rearrangement creates a distinct peak at m/z 58.</li>
</ol>
An additional diagnostic feature in aldehydes is the M&#8722;1 peak, which arises due to the &#945;-cleavage of the aldehyde proton. In mass spectrometric analysis, this peak can help identify aldehydes, specifically among other carbonyl compounds.
Understanding these fragmentation pathways is crucial for interpreting mass spectra, particularly in identifying functional groups and distinguishing between similar compounds.

In mass spectrometry, the fragmentation of aliphatic aldehydes and ketones generally occurs through three key mechanisms: &#945;-cleavage, inductive ...

Mass Spectrometry: Aromatic Compound Fragmentation

Upon ionization, aromatic compounds generate a molecular ion that is observed as a prominent peak in their mass spectra. For example, the molecular ion peak for benzene appears at a mass-to-charge ratio of 78, while toluene is observed at a mass-to-charge ratio of 92. The molecular ion benzene is highly stable and does not readily undergo further fragmentation due to the significant amount of energy required to disrupt the aromatic stability of the benzene ring. In contrast, the molecular ion of alkyl&#8208;substituted benzenes, such as toluene, can undergo fragmentation by losing a hydrogen atom, forming a benzylic carbocation. This carbocation can rearrange to form the resonance-stabilized tropylium cation, which appears in the mass spectra as a strong peak. In the case of toluene, this strong peak is observed at a mass-to-charge ratio of 91.

Upon ionization, aromatic compounds generate a molecular ion that is observed as a prominent peak in their mass spectra. For example, the molecular ion ...

Mass Spectrometry: Cycloalkene Fragmentation

The molecular ions of cycloalkenes undergo fragmentation via a retro-Diels&#8211;Alder reaction.

The reaction proceeds via the cleavage of two carbon-carbon bonds in the cycloalkene to yield ethene. The remaining part of the cycloalkene structure is a dienyl radical cation with a molecular weight of 28 u lower than the molecular ion. This fragmentation pathway is similar to the fragmentation of cycloalkanes releasing ethene, differing only in the resultant radical cation. An alkyl species forms from the cycloalkane, whereas a dienyl species originates from the cycloalkene.

Retro-Diels&#8211;Alder reactions of cycloalkenes are also similar to the McLafferty-rearrangement-type fragmentation observed in acyclic alkenes with hydrogen on the &#947; carbon. In both cases, cleavage occurs at two positions, yielding an ethene molecule and an alkenyl species. In acyclic alkenes, the cleavage occurs at one carbon-carbon bond and a carbon-hydrogen bond, along with rearranging hydrogen from one carbon to another. In cyclic alkenes, cleavage occurs at two carbon&#8211;carbon bonds without any atomic rearrangement. Figure 1 depicts the fragmentation of cyclohexene via a retro-Diels&#8211;Alder reaction.
<img alt="Figure1" src="/files/ftp_upload/13044/13044-PT_Figure_1.svg" style="text-align: center; height: 90px;" />
Figure 1: Fragmentation of cyclohexene via a retro-Diels&#8211;Alder reaction.
In addition to the retro-Diels&#8211;Alder reaction, branched cycloalkenes exhibit fragmentation via cleavage of the side chain to form a cycloalkene cation. For example, the fragmentation of 1-methyl-1-cyclohexene via a retro-Diels&#8211;Alder reaction and side-chain cleavage are shown in Figure 2.
<img alt="Figure2" src="/files/ftp_upload/13044/13044-PT_Figure_2.svg" style="text-align: center; height: 225px;" />
Figure 2: Fragmentation of 1-methyl-1-cyclohexene via (top) a retro-Diels&#8211;Alder reaction; (bottom) side-chain cleavage.
The corresponding signals of the isoprenyl radical cation and the cyclohexenyl cation are evident in the mass spectrum of 1-methyl-1-cyclohexene shown in Figure 3.
<img alt="Figure3" src="/files/ftp_upload/13044/13044-PT_Figure_3.svg" style="text-align: center; height: 250px;" />
Figure 3: Mass spectrum of 1-methyl-1-cyclohexene.

The molecular ions of cycloalkenes undergo fragmentation via a retro-Diels&#8211;Alder reaction.

The reaction proceeds via the cleavage of two ...

Mass Spectrometry: Alkyne Fragmentation

The fragmentation of alkynes preferentially occurs at the carbon&#8211;carbon bond between the &#945; and &#946; carbon of the alkyne bond to generate a 3-propynyl cation (or propargyl cation). In terminal alkynes, there is the only type of fragmentation that yields the 3-propynyl cation. The unsubstituted 3-propynyl cation exhibits a peak at a mass-to-charge ratio of 39. In internal alkynes, the 3-propynyl cation is substituted. For example, 2-pentyne fragments into methyl-substituted 3-propynyl cation, which subsequently features as a mass signal at the mass-to-charge ratio of 56. The 3-propynyl cation is resonance-stabilized, and the corresponding mass signal is intense in the mass spectrum of alkynes. Figure 1 shows the fragmentation of 1-pentyne into an ethyl radical and a resonance stabilized 3-propynyl cation.
<img alt="Figure1" src="/files/ftp_upload/13045/13045-PT_Figure_1.svg" style="text-align: center; height: 115px;" />
Figure 1: Fragmentation of 1-pentyne molecular ion to yield the 3-propynyl cation.
Another fragmentation pathway observed in terminal alkynes is the loss of hydrogen from the terminal sp carbon. This results in a mass signal with a mass-to-charge ratio of one unit less than the molecular ion. This M&#8211;1 peak is very intense and becomes the base peak in the mass spectra of many alkynes, so it can be used to identify alkynes.
<img alt="Figure2" src="/files/ftp_upload/13045/13045-PT_Figure_2.svg" style="text-align: center; height: 275px;" />
Figure 2: The mass spectrum of 1-pentyne.

The fragmentation of alkynes preferentially occurs at the carbon&#8211;carbon bond between the &#945; and &#946; carbon of the alkyne bond to generate a ...

Mass Spectrometry: Alcohol Fragmentation

Alcohols (R-OH) ionize to lose one non-bonded electron from the oxygen atom, forming molecular ions. Due to their tendency to fragment rapidly, the intensity of the molecular ion peak in the mass spectrum is weak or sometimes absent. The fragmentation patterns for alcohols occur in two ways, i.e. &#9082;-cleavage and dehydration. During &#9082;-cleavage, the bond at the &#9082;-position adjacent to the hydroxyl group cleaves to give a resonance-stabilized cation and a radical. However, intramolecular dehydration involves losing a water molecule from an alcohol, forming an alkene cation, which shows a peak at M&#8722;18. Consider the fragmentation of butanol as shown below. &#9082;-cleavage produces a base peak at a mass-to-charge ratio of 31. In the case of dehydration, the fragmentation forms an alkene radical cation at a mass-to-charge ratio of 56.
<img alt="Figure1" src="/files/ftp_upload/13046/13046-PT_Figure_1.svg" style="text-align: center; height: 175px;" />

Alcohols (R-OH) ionize to lose one non-bonded electron from the oxygen atom, forming molecular ions. Due to their tendency to fragment rapidly, the ...

Mass Spectrometry: Amine Fragmentation

Amines can be identified using mass spectroscopy based on their characteristic fragmentation patterns. The molecular ions of amines undergo fragmentation via &#9082;-cleavage. The &#9082;-cleavage of the carbon-carbon bonds in amines generates an alkyl radical and resonance-stabilized nitrogen-containing cation.
In amines, the number of nitrogen atoms affects the mass of the molecular ion, which is described by the nitrogen rule of mass spectrometry. This rule states that a compound containing a single or an odd number of nitrogen atoms produces a molecular ion with an odd molecular weight, while a compound with no or an even number of nitrogen atoms generates a molecular ion with an even molecular weight.
For example, the mass spectrum of 3-methyl-1-butanamine, which contains one nitrogen atom, displays a molecular ion having an odd mass-to-charge ratio of 87. Fragmentation of this molecular ion via &#9082;-cleavage produces a base peak, which features a mass signal at a mass-to-charge ratio of 30, corresponding with the loss of the 2-methyl propyl radical.
Similarly, the fragmentation of triethylamine via &#9082;-cleavage generates a cation at a mass-to-charge ratio of 86. The molecular ion peak shows an odd mass-to-charge ratio of 101, as shown below.
<img alt="Figure1" src="/files/ftp_upload/13048/13048_PT_Figure_1.svg" style="text-align: center; height: 105px;" />

Amines can be identified using mass spectroscopy based on their characteristic fragmentation patterns. The molecular ions of amines undergo fragmentation ...

Mass Spectrometry: Branched Alkane Fragmentation

This lesson delves into the mass spectrometry of branched alkane fragmentation. Branched alkanes possess secondary or tertiary carbon atoms, which generate relatively stable carbocations if the cleavage occurs at the branching point. The high stability of carbocations drives the instant fragmentation of branched alkanes. Accordingly, the branched alkane&#39;s molecular ion peak is very weak or invisible in the mass spectra, especially in comparison to a linear alkane.
<img alt="Figure1" src="/files/ftp_upload/13041/13041-PT_Figure_1.svg" style="text-align: center; height: 275px;" />
Figure 1. Fragmentation pathway of 2-methylbutane (top), neopentane (middle), and n-pentane (bottom) molecular ions.
Figure 1 shows the most feasible fragmentation pathway observed in 2-methyl butane, neopentane, and n-pentane molecular ions. 2-methyl butane and neopentane fragment to yield secondary and tertiary carbocations, respectively. The stability of these carbocations drives the fragmentation reaction, even though the co-produced methyl radical is relatively unstable. In contrast, the cleavage of n-pentane leading to the methyl radical is difficult since the stability of a primary carbocation is low.
<img alt="Figure2" src="/files/ftp_upload/13041/13041-PT_Figure_2.svg" style="text-align: center; height: 105px;" />
Figure 2. Fragmentation of 2,2-dimethylpentane.
As shown in Figure 2, the fragmentation of 2,2-dimethyl pentane involves the loss of either methyl or propyl radical, resulting in a tertiary carbocation. Here, the stability of the co-produced radical determines the cleaving bond. So, the cleavage that produces a propyl radical is favored, and the signal from the 2-methyl propyl carbocation becomes the base peak.

This lesson delves into the mass spectrometry of branched alkane fragmentation. Branched alkanes possess secondary or tertiary carbon atoms, which ...

Determination of Moisture Content in Soil

Source: Laboratories of Dr. Ian Pepper and Dr. Charles Gerba - The University of Arizona 
Demonstrating Author: Bradley Schmitz
Soils normally contain a finite amount of water, which can be expressed as the &#8220;soil moisture content.&#8221; This moisture exists within the pore spaces in between soil aggregates (inter-aggregate pore space) and within soil aggregates (intra-aggregate pore space) (Figure 1). Normally this pore space is occupied by air and/or water. If all the pores are occupied by air, the soil is completely dry. If all the pores are filled with water, the soil is said to be saturated.
<img alt="Figure 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/10011/10011fig1.jpg" /> 
Figure 1. Pore space in soil.

Détermination de la teneur en humidité du sol

Source: Laboratories of Dr. Ian Pepper and Dr. Charles Gerba - The University of Arizona
Demonstrating Author: Bradley Schmitz
Soils normally contain a ...

Aseptic Technique in Environmental Science

Source: Laboratories of Dr. Ian Pepper and Dr. Charles Gerba - The University of Arizona 
Demonstrating Author: Luisa Ikner
Aseptic technique is a fundamental skill widely practiced in the field of environmental microbiology that requires a balance of mindfulness and practice in the laboratory. Proper use of this technique reduces the likelihood of bacterial or fungal contamination of reagents, culture media, and environmental samples. Aseptic technique is also vital to ensure data integrity and maintain the purity of culture libraries that may be comprised of very rare and difficult to culture isolates. Sources of contamination in the laboratory environment include airborne microorganisms (including those adhering to dust and lint particles), microbes present on the laboratory bench workspace or on unsterilized glassware or equipment, and microbes transferred from the body and hair of the researcher. The use of aseptic technique is also a safety measure that lowers the potential for the transmission of microorganisms to researchers, which is particularly important when working with pathogens.

Technique aseptique en sciences de l'environnement

Source: Laboratories of Dr. Ian Pepper and Dr. Charles Gerba - The University of Arizona
Demonstrating Author: Luisa Ikner
Aseptic technique is a ...

Gram Staining of Bacteria from Environmental Sources

Source: Laboratories of Dr. Ian Pepper and Dr. Charles Gerba - The University of Arizona 
Demonstrating Author: Luisa Ikner
The spectrum of research in environmental microbiology is broad in scope and application potential. Whether the work is bench-scale with known bacterial isolates, or in the field collecting soil or water samples containing unknown bacterial isolates, the ability to quickly and visually discern culturable populations of interest remains of great import to environmental microbiologists even today with the abundance of molecular techniques available for use. This video will demonstrate one such technique, known as Gram staining.

Coloration de Gram des bactéries provenant de sources environnementales

Source: Laboratories of Dr. Ian Pepper and Dr. Charles Gerba - The University of Arizona
Demonstrating Author: Luisa Ikner
The spectrum of research in ...

Visualizing Soil Microorganisms via the Contact Slide Assay and Microscopy

Source: Laboratories of Dr. Ian Pepper and Dr. Charles Gerba - The University of Arizona 
Demonstrating Author: Bradley Schmitz
Soil comprises the thin layer at the earth&#8217;s surface, containing biotic and abiotic factors that contribute to life. The abiotic portion includes inorganic particles ranging in size and shape that determine the soil&#8217;s texture. The biotic portion incorporates plant residues, roots, organic matter, and microorganisms. Soil microbe abundance and diversity is expansive, as one gram of soil contains 107-8 bacteria, 106-8 actinomycetes, 105-6 fungi, 103 yeast, 104-6 protozoa, 103-4 algae, and 53 nematodes. Together, the biotic and abiotic factors form architectures around plant roots, known as the rhizosphere, that provide favorable conditions for soil microorganisms.
Biotic and abiotic factors promote life in soils. However, they also contribute stressful dynamics that limit microbes. Biotic stress involves competition amongst life to adapt and survive in environmental conditions. For example, microbes can secrete inhibitory or toxic substances to harm neighboring microorganisms. Penicillium notatum is a notorious fungus, as it reduces competition for nutrients by producing an antimicrobial, which humans harvest to create the pharmaceutical penicillin. Abiotic stresses arise from physical or chemical properties limiting microbial survival, such as light, moisture, temperature, pH, nutrients, and texture.

Contact Slide Assay: Qualitative Imaging of Soil Microbiota

Visualisation des micro-organismes du sol grâce aux lames de contact et à la microscopie

Source: Laboratories of Dr. Ian Pepper and Dr. Charles Gerba - The University of Arizona
Demonstrating Author: Bradley Schmitz
Soil comprises the thin ...

Filamentous Fungi

Source: Laboratories of Dr. Ian Pepper and Dr. Charles Gerba - The University of Arizona 
Demonstrating Author: Bradley Schmitz
Fungi are heterotrophic eukaryotic organisms, and with the exception of yeasts, are aerobic. They are abundant in surface soils and are important for their role in nutrient cycling and the decomposition of organic matter and organic contaminants. White rot fungi (phanerochaete chryosporium) for example, (Figure 1) are known to degrade aromatics.

<img alt="Figure 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/10030/10030fig1.jpg" /> 
Figure 1. White rot on birch.

Culture, Enumeration and Identification of Filamentous Fungi from Soil

Champignons filamenteux

Source: Laboratories of Dr. Ian Pepper and Dr. Charles Gerba - The University of Arizona
Demonstrating Author: Bradley Schmitz
Fungi are heterotrophic ...

Community DNA Extraction from Bacterial Colonies

Source: Laboratories of Dr. Ian Pepper and Dr. Charles Gerba - The University of Arizona 
Demonstrating Author: Luisa Ikner
Traditional methods of analysis for microbial communities within soils have usually involved either cultural assays utilizing dilution and plating methodology on selective and differential media or direct count assays. Direct counts offer information about the total number of bacteria present, but give no information about the number or diversity of populations present within the community. Plate counts allow enumeration of total cultural or selected cultural populations, and hence provide information on the different populations present. However, since less than 1% of soil bacteria are readily culturable, cultural information offers only a piece of the picture. The actual fraction of the community that can be cultured depends on the medium chosen for cultural counts. Any single medium will select for the populations that are best suited to that particular medium.
In recent years, the advantages of studying community DNA extracted from soil samples have become apparent. This nonculture-based approach is thought to be more representative of the actual community present than culture-based approaches. In addition to providing information about the types of populations present, this approach can also provide information about their genetic potential. As with any technique, there are limitations to the data that can be obtained with DNA extraction. Therefore, many researchers now use DNA extraction in conjunction with direct and cultural counts to maximize the data obtained from an environmental sample.

Extraction d'ADN communautaire à partir de colonies bactériennes

Source: Laboratories of Dr. Ian Pepper and Dr. Charles Gerba - The University of Arizona
Demonstrating Author: Luisa Ikner
Traditional methods of analysis ...

Detecting Environmental Microorganisms with the Polymerase Chain Reaction and Gel Electrophoresis

Source: Laboratories of Dr. Ian Pepper and Dr. Charles Gerba - Arizona University 
Demonstrating Author: Bradley Schmitz
Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is a technique used to detect microorganisms that are present in soil, water, and atmospheric environments. By amplifying specific sections of DNA, PCR can facilitate the detection and identification of target microorganisms down to the species, strain, and serovar/pathovar level. The technique can also be utilized to characterize entire communities of microorganisms in samples.
The culturing of microorganisms in the laboratory using specialized growth media is a long-established technique and remains in use for the detection of microorganisms in environmental samples. Many microbes in the natural environment, while alive, maintain low levels of metabolic activity and/or doubling times and are thus referred to as viable but non-culturable (VBNC) organisms. The use of culture-based techniques alone cannot detect these microbes and, therefore, does not provide a thorough assessment of microbial populations in samples. The use of PCR allows for the detection of culturable microbes, VBNC organisms, and those that are no longer alive or active, as the amplification of genetic sequences does not generally require the pre-enrichment of microorganisms present in environmental samples. However, PCR cannot differentiate the aforementioned states of viability and activity. When combined with one or more culture-based techniques, the viability of certain subsets of microorganisms may still be determined.

Detecting Environmental Microorganisms Using PCR

Détection des micro-organismes environnementaux avec la réaction en chaîne par polymérase et l'électrophorèse sur gel

Source: Laboratories of Dr. Ian Pepper and Dr. Charles Gerba - Arizona University
Demonstrating Author: Bradley Schmitz
Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is ...

RNA Analysis of Environmental Samples Using RT-PCR

Source: Laboratories of Dr. Ian Pepper and Dr. Charles Gerba - The University of Arizona 
Demonstrating Author: Bradley Schmitz
Reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) involves the same process as conventional PCR &#8212; cycling temperature to amplify nucleic acids. However, while conventional PCR only amplifies deoxyribonucleic acids (DNA), RT-PCR enables the amplification of ribonucleic acids (RNA) through the formation of complementary DNA (cDNA). This enables RNA-based organisms found within the environment to be analyzed utilizing methods and technologies that are designed for DNA.
Many viruses found in the environment use RNA as their genetic material. Several RNA-based viral pathogens, such as Norovirus, and indicator organisms, such as pepper mild mottle virus (PMMoV), do not have culture-based detection methods for quantification. In order to detect for the presence of these RNA viruses in environmental samples from soil, water, agriculture, etc., molecular assays rely on RT-PCR to convert RNA into DNA. Without RT-PCR, microbiologists would not be able to assay and research numerous RNA-based viruses that pose risks to human and environmental health.
RT-PCR can also be employed as a tool to measure microbial activity in the environment. Messenger RNA (mRNA) is the single-stranded template for protein translation, and measuring the levels of different mRNAs indicates which genes from which microbes are being expressed within the environment. Analyzing gene expression gives clues to what biological pathways are used by organisms to survive in different environmental conditions. In some cases, gene expression can be utilized to determine which organisms may survive best in harsh conditions and have capabilities for bioremediation of contaminated soil or water.

RNA Extraction and RT-PCR Analysis of Environmental Microbes

Analyse d'ARN d'échantillons environnementaux à l'aide de la RT-PCR

Source: Laboratories of Dr. Ian Pepper and Dr. Charles Gerba - The University of Arizona
Demonstrating Author: Bradley Schmitz
Reverse ...

Quantifying Environmental Microorganisms and Viruses Using qPCR

Source: Laboratories of Dr. Ian Pepper and Dr. Charles Gerba - The University of Arizona 
Demonstrating Author: Bradley Schmitz
Quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR), also known as real-time PCR, is a widely-used molecular technique for enumerating microorganisms in the environment. Prior to this approach, quantifying microorganisms was limited largely to classical culture-based techniques. However, the culturing of microbes from environmental samples can be particularly challenging, and it is generally held that as few as 1 to 10% of the microorganisms present within environmental samples are detectable using these techniques. The advent of qPCR in environmental microbiology research has therefore advanced the field greatly by allowing for more accurate determination of concentrations of microorganisms such as disease-causing pathogens in environmental samples. However, an important limitation of qPCR as an applied microbiological technique is that living, viable populations cannot be differentiated from inactive or non-living populations.
This video demonstrates the use of qPCR to detect pepper mild mottle virus from an environmental water sample.

Quantification des micro-organismes et des virus environnementaux à l'aide de la qPCR

Source: Laboratories of Dr. Ian Pepper and Dr. Charles Gerba - The University of Arizona
Demonstrating Author: Bradley Schmitz
Quantitative polymerase ...

Water Quality Analysis via Indicator Organisms

Source: Laboratories of Dr. Ian Pepper and Dr. Charles Gerba -The University of Arizona 
Demonstrating Author: Luisa Ikner
Water quality analysis monitors anthropogenic influences such as pollutants, nutrients, pathogens, and any other constituent that can impact the water&#8217;s integrity as a resource. Fecal contamination contributes microbial pathogens that threaten plant, animal, and human health with disease or illness. Increasing water demands and strict quality standards require that water being supplied for human or environmental resources be monitored for low pathogen levels. However, monitoring each pathogen associated with fecal pollution is not feasible, as laboratory techniques involve extensive labor, time, and costs. Therefore, detection for indicator organisms provides a simple, rapid, and cost effective technique to monitor pathogens associated with unsanitary conditions.

Microbial Indicators and Most Probable Number Analysis for Water Quality

Analyse de la qualité de l'eau via des organismes indicateurs

Source: Laboratories of Dr. Ian Pepper and Dr. Charles Gerba -The University of Arizona
Demonstrating Author: Luisa Ikner
Water quality analysis monitors ...

Isolation of Fecal Bacteria from Water Samples by Filtration

Source: Laboratories of Dr. Ian Pepper and Dr. Charles Gerba - The University of Arizona 
Demonstrating Author: Luisa Ikner
The quality of water destined for use in agricultural, recreational, and domestic settings is of great importance due to the potential for outbreaks of waterborne disease. Microbial agents implicated in such events include parasites, bacteria, and viruses that are shed in high numbers in the feces of infected people and animals. Transmission to new and susceptible hosts may then occur via the fecal-oral route upon ingestion of contaminated water. Therefore, the ability to monitor water sources for the presence of pathogenic microorganisms is significant in order to ensure public health.
Due to the sheer number and variety of potential fecal-oral pathogens that may be present in water and their variable concentrations, it is impractical and expensive to assay directly for each one of them on a regular basis. Therefore, the microbiological assays for water quality monitoring employ coliform indicator bacteria. Coliforms comprise, in part, the normal intestinal microflora of warm-blooded mammals, are non-pathogenic, and are consistently excreted in the feces. Therefore, the detection of coliform bacteria in water means that a fecal release occurred, and that harmful pathogenic microorganisms may also be present.

Isolation and Identification of Fecal Bacteria from Water

Isolement des bactéries fécales à partir des échantillons d'eau par filtration

Source: Laboratories of Dr. Ian Pepper and Dr. Charles Gerba - The University of Arizona
Demonstrating Author: Luisa Ikner
The quality of water destined ...

Detection of Bacteriophages in Environmental Samples

Source: Laboratories of Dr. Ian Pepper and Dr. Charles Gerba - The University of Arizona 
Demonstrating Author: Alex Wassimi
Viruses are a unique group of biological entities that infect both eukaryotic and prokaryotic organisms. They are obligate parasites that have no metabolic capacity, and in order to replicate, rely on host metabolism to produce viral parts that self-assemble inside host cells.
Viruses are ultramicroscopic&#8212;too small to be viewed with the light microscope, visible only with the greater resolution of the electron microscope. A viral particle consists of a nucleic acid genome, either DNA or RNA, surrounded by a protein coat, known as a capsid, composed of protein subunits or capsomers. In some more complex viruses, the capsid is surrounded by an additional lipid envelope, and some have spike-like surface appendages or tails.
Viruses that infect the intestinal tract of humans and animals are known as enteric viruses. They are excreted in feces and can be isolated from domestic wastewater. Viruses which infect bacteria are known as bacteriophages, and those which infect coliform bacteria are called coliphages (Figure 1). The phages of coliform bacteria are found anywhere coliform bacteria are found.
<img alt="Figure 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/10190/10190fig1.jpg" /> 
Figure 1. Coliphage T2.

Plaque Assay: Phage Enumeration in Environmental Samples

Détection de bactériophages dans des échantillons environnementaux

Source: Laboratories of Dr. Ian Pepper and Dr. Charles Gerba - The University of Arizona
Demonstrating Author: Alex Wassimi
Viruses are a unique group of ...

Culturing and Enumerating Bacteria from Soil Samples

Source: Laboratories of Dr. Ian Pepper and Dr. Charles Gerba - The University of Arizona 
Demonstrating Authors: Bradley Schmitz and Luisa Ikner
Surface soils are a heterogeneous mixture of inorganic and organic particles that combine together to form secondary aggregates. Within and between the aggregates are voids or pores that visually contain both air and water. These conditions create an ideal ecosystem for bacteria, so all soils contain vast populations of bacteria, usually over 1 million per gram of soil.
Bacteria are the simplest of microorganisms, known as prokaryotes. Within this prokaryotic group, there are the filamentous microbes known as actinomycetes. Actinomycetes are actually bacteria, but they are frequently considered to be a unique group within the classification of bacteria because of their filamentous structure, which consists of multiple cells strung together to form hyphae. This experiment uses glycerol case media that select for actinomycete colonies, during dilution and plating. Typically, actinomycetes are approximately 10% of the total bacterial population. Bacteria and actinomycetes are found in every environment on Earth, but the abundance and diversity of these microbes in soil is unparalleled. These microbes are also essential for human life and affect what people eat, drink, breathe, or touch. In addition, there are bacterial species that can infect people and cause disease, and there are bacteria that can produce natural products capable of healing people. Actinomycetes are particularly important for producing antibiotics, such as streptomycin. Bacteria are critical for nutrient cycling, plant growth, and degradation of organic contaminants.
Bacteria are highly diverse in terms of the number of species that can be found in soil, in part because they are physiologically and metabolically diverse. Bacteria can be heterotrophic, meaning they utilize organic compounds, such as glucose, for food and energy, or autotrophic, meaning they utilize inorganic compounds, such as elemental sulfur, for food and energy. They can also be aerobic, utilizing oxygen for respiration, or anaerobic, utilizing combined forms of oxygen, such as nitrate or sulfate, to respire. Some bacteria can use oxygen or combined forms of oxygen and are known as facultative anaerobes.

Culture et dénombrement des bactéries dans un échantillon de sol

Source: Laboratories of Dr. Ian Pepper and Dr. Charles Gerba - The University of Arizona
Demonstrating Authors: Bradley Schmitz and Luisa Ikner
Surface ...

Bacterial Growth Curve Analysis and its Environmental Applications

Source: Laboratories of Dr. Ian Pepper and Dr. Charles Gerba - The University of Arizona 
Demonstrating Author: Luisa Ikner
Bacteria are among the most abundant life forms on Earth. They are found in every ecosystem and are vital for everyday life. For example, bacteria affect what people eat, drink, and breathe, and there are actually more bacterial cells within a person&#8217;s body than mammalian cells. Because of the importance of bacteria, it is preferable to study particular species of bacteria in the laboratory. To do this, bacteria are grown under controlled conditions in pure culture, meaning that only one type of bacterium is under consideration. Bacteria grow quickly in pure culture, and cell numbers increase dramatically in a short period of time. By measuring the rate of cell population increase over time, a &#8220;growth curve&#8221; to be developed. This is important when aiming to utilize or inoculate known numbers of the bacterial isolate, for example to enhance plant growth, increase biodegradation of toxic organics, or produce antibiotics or other natural products at an industrial scale.

Serial Dilution Plating and Bacterial Growth Curve Analysis

Analyse de la courbe de croissance bactérienne et ses applications environnementales

Source: Laboratories of Dr. Ian Pepper and Dr. Charles Gerba - The University of Arizona
Demonstrating Author: Luisa Ikner
Bacteria are among the most ...

Algae Enumeration via Culturable Methodology

Source: Laboratories of Dr. Ian Pepper and Dr. Charles Gerba - The University of Arizona 
Demonstrating Author: Bradley Schmitz
Algae are a highly heterogeneous group of microorganisms that have one common trait, namely the possession of photosynthetic pigments. In the environment, algae can cause problems for swimming pool owners by growing in the water. Algae can also cause problems in surface waters, such as lakes and reservoirs, due to algal blooms that release toxins. More recently, algae are being evaluated as novel sources of energy via algal biofuels. Blue-green algae are actually bacteria classified as cyanobacteria. Cyanobacteria not only photosynthesize, but also have the ability to fix nitrogen gas from the atmosphere. Other algae are eukaryotic, ranging from single-celled organisms to complex multicellular organisms, like seaweeds. These include the green algae, the euglenoids, the dinoflagellates, the golden brown algae, diatoms, the brown algae, and the red algae. In soils, algal populations are frequently 106 per gram. These numbers are lower than corresponding numbers for bacteria, actinomycetes, and fungi, mostly because the sunlight required for photosynthesis cannot penetrate far beneath the soil surface.
Because algae are phototrophic, obtaining energy from photosynthesis and carbon for biomass from carbon dioxide, they can be grown in growth media consisting entirely of inorganic nutrients and without an organic carbon substrate. The lack of organic substrate precludes the growth of heterotrophic bacteria. Using an inorganic growth medium, algae originally present in soil or water can be quantitated by the most probable number (MPN) method. The MPN method relies on successively diluting a sample, such that the algae themselves are diluted to extinction. The presence of algae in any dilution is determined by a positive sign of growth in the medium, which is typically a green slime of algae that results from photosynthesis. Use of replicate tubes at each dilution and a statistical evaluation of the number of tubes positive for growth at any given dilution allows for the number of algae present in the original sample to be calculated. MPN tables have been developed and published specific to a particular MPN design, including the number of replicates used at each dilution.

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Education Environmental Microbiology

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