Our work is supported by the Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council. We would like to thank Prof Tamotsu Yoshimori for kindly supplying us with the plasmid for the expression of CFP-LC3.

1. Cell Preparation
<ol>
 <li>Seed low passage number of HEK-293T cells stably expressing GFP-DFCP1 on 22 mm round coverslips; culture cells overnight in Dulbecco Modified Eagles's Medium (DMEM), to a confluency of 30-40% (aim for a confluency of 80% after 2 days - day of live cell imaging).</li>
</ol>
2. Cell Transfection
<ol>
 <li>Prepare the transfection complex mix for each plate, containing 100 &mu;l OptiMEM I reduced serum medium, 3 &mu;l X-tremeGENE 9 DNA Transfection Reagent, and 0.5 &mu;g of pECFP-LC3 plasmid DNA. Mix gently by pipetting up and down and incubate 15 min at room temperature. (Note: we have repeatedly found that other transfection reagents, such as Lipofectamine 2000, have a lot of toxicity, and, in addition, they produce fluorescent particles on their own which interfere with many microscopy techniques.)</li>
 <li>Aspirate the medium from plates and add fresh DMEM pre-warmed at 37 &deg;C.</li>
 <li>Add the transfection complex to cells by pipetting; incubate cells for 24 hr.</li>
</ol>
3. Cell Incubation with the Organelle Marker (Optional)
<ol>
 <li>Add mitotracker/lysotracker to DMEM at a final concentration of 75 nM, and keep on ice, in a falcon tube covered with aluminum foil, along the whole experimental day, to avoid light exposure and repetitive freezing and thawing cycles.</li>
 <li>Remove an aliquot of 2 ml of the mitotracker/lysotracker-containing medium and warm up at 37 &deg;C; aspirate medium from transfected cells and replace with mitotracker/ lysotracker-containing medium and incubate cells for 30 - 60 min.</li>
</ol>
4. Preparation of Incubation Chamber for Live Cell Imaging (Figure 1)
<ol>
 <li>Clean metal and plastic O-rings with 75% ethanol and apply silicon grease on the rim of the metal O-ring.</li>
 <li>Using forceps remove the coverslip from the plate and dry the excess of medium from the bottom side of the coverslip, to avoid mixing too much medium with the grease, as this will increase the likelihood of leakage.</li>
 <li>Leave the coverslip to rest on the ledge of the plastic O-ring and fit the metal O-ring on top of the plastic O-ring, with the coverslip sandwiched in between, in order to create a closed chamber.</li>
 <li>Top up chamber with the medium from the plate; from this point and on, avoid prolonged incubation of the cells in DMEM medium without a buffering agent, to prevent changes in pH to occur, as the bicarbonate buffer system of DMEM requires artificial CO2 concentration of 5-10% and the CO2 concentration of ambient air is much lower.</li>
</ol>
5. Starvation of Cells
<ol>
 <li>Put the incubation chamber on the microscope stage.</li>
 <li>Aspirate the complete medium and wash with 2 ml of starvation medium 3 times, to ensure that no amino acids have remained from the DMEM, which will eventually inhibit the autophagy response; set the timer ON.</li>
</ol>
6. Microscopy
<ol>
 <li>An appropriate imaging system configured for live cell wide-field epi-fluorescence will be required. This will typically comprise a research-grade inverted microscope frame, an intense broad-spectrum light source, mirrors and filters specific for the fluorescent protein(s)/dye(s) of interest, a high quality objective lens, a sensitive CCD/sCMOS camera and an incubation chamber. All the major microscope manufacturers offer complete wide-field systems appropriate for live cell imaging, but it is also possible to home-build a system using components from a variety of manufacturers and control it using open source software such as Micro-Manager (<a href="http://valelab.ucsf.edu/~MM/MMwiki/" target="_blank">http://valelab.ucsf.edu/~MM/MMwiki/</a>). The most important aspect in our opinion is to use a system of high sensitivity so that expression levels of the fluorescent reporters can be kept to a minimum.</li>
 <li>Selecting the appropriate cells to image.
 <ol>
 <li>Select large and flat cells that will allow more autophagosome formation events to be captured. Also, opt for cells that have already started producing a greater number of omegasomes.</li>
 <li>Start the video capture after 30 min or well into autophagy response, in order to capture a larger ratio of autophagosome formation events per video.</li>
 </ol>
 </li>
 <li>Imaging.
 <ol>
 <li>Use a high magnification lens (100x 1.4 NA).</li>
 <li>Adjust the intensity of excitation light to 10-20% of maximum to prevent photo-bleaching.</li>
 <li>Set the camera (Hamamatsu ORCA ER, pixel size 6.45 &mu;m) to 100-500 msec exposure, 2x2 binning and 100 gain.</li>
 <li>Set the image acquisition rate to 1 frame every 10 sec.</li>
 </ol>
 </li>
</ol>
7. Creating Montages of Autophagosome Formation Events with ImageJ
(Note: This can be done in a non-systematic way by simply scanning the merged video for events of interest, but it can also be systematized as outlined below.)
<ol>
 <li>Open image stacks for the 3 (or 2) captured channels in ImageJ/Fiji.</li>
 <li>Apply green, red and blue LUT (Lookup Tables) to the corresponding channel; merge 3 colors and save.</li>
 <li>From the Analyze tab, select Tools &gt; ROI manager... &gt; Specify, then select a random area of defined size in the first image of the stack.</li>
 <li>From the Image tab, select duplicate, in order to duplicate the selected area of the stack.</li>
 <li>From the Image tab, select Stacks &gt; Make montage... to create a tentative montage containing all the frames captured. Scan all frames in the montage for a complete autophagosome formation event; keep notes of the first and last frame of the event.</li>
 <li>From the Analyze tab, select Tools &gt; ROI manager... select the same area in the first image of the stack for the other 2 colors as well as for the merged colors image and duplicate stacks.</li>
 <li>From the File tab, select New &gt; Image, and set for width according to the number of pixels initially selected using the ROI manager, set for height 4 times the height set in the ROI manager plus 3 pixels for space in between the 3 colors and the merged, and set Slices as the number of frames in each stack.</li>
 <li>From the Image tab, select Stacks &gt; Tools &gt; Insert..., then insert each sub-stack one on top of another, leaving space of 1 pixel in between.</li>
 <li>From the Image tab, select Stacks &gt; Make montage... to create a montage starting and finishing with the first and last frame of the autophagosome formation event captured.</li>
</ol>

<ol>
	<li>Mizushima, N. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Autophagy:+process+and+function.">Autophagy: process and function.</a> Genes Dev. 21, 2861-2873 (2007).</li><li>Mizushima, N., Yoshimori, T., Ohsumi, Y. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+role+of+Atg+proteins+in+autophagosome+formation.">The role of Atg proteins in autophagosome formation.</a> Annual review of cell and developmental biology. 27, 107-132 (2011).</li><li>Klionsky, D. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Autophagy:+from+phenomenology+to+molecular+understanding+in+less+than+a+decade.">Autophagy: from phenomenology to molecular understanding in less than a decade.</a> Nat. Rev. Mol. Cell Biol. 8, 931-937 (2007).</li><li>Klionsky, D. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Autophagy+revisited:+a+conversation+with+Christian+de+Duve.">Autophagy revisited: a conversation with Christian de Duve.</a> Autophagy. 4, 740-743 (2008).</li><li>Yla-Anttilba, P., Vihinen, H., Jokitalo, E., Eskelinen, E. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=3D+tomography+reveals+connections+between+the+phagophore+and+endoplasmic+reticulum.">3D tomography reveals connections between the phagophore and endoplasmic reticulum.</a> Autophagy. 5, 1180-1185 (2009).</li><li>Hayashi-Nishino, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+subdomain+of+the+endoplasmic+reticulum+forms+a+cradle+for+autophagosome+formation.">A subdomain of the endoplasmic reticulum forms a cradle for autophagosome formation.</a> Nat. Cell Biol. 11, 1433-1437 (2009).</li><li>Lippincott-Schwartz, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Emerging+in+vivo+analyses+of+cell+function+using+fluorescence+imaging+(*).">Emerging in vivo analyses of cell function using fluorescence imaging (*).</a> Annu. Rev. Biochem. 80, 327-332 (2011).</li><li>Mizushima, N., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Dissection+of+autophagosome+formation+using+Apg5-deficient+mouse+embryonic+stem+cells.">Dissection of autophagosome formation using Apg5-deficient mouse embryonic stem cells.</a> The Journal of Cell Biology. 152, 657-668 (2001).</li><li>Itakura, E., Mizushima, N. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Characterization+of+autophagosome+formation+site+by+a+hierarchical+analysis+of+mammalian+Atg+proteins.">Characterization of autophagosome formation site by a hierarchical analysis of mammalian Atg proteins.</a> Autophagy. 6, 764-776 (2010).</li><li>Axe, E. L., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Autophagosome+formation+from+membrane+compartments+enriched+in+phosphatidylinositol+3-phosphate+and+dynamically+connected+to+the+endoplasmic+reticulum.">Autophagosome formation from membrane compartments enriched in phosphatidylinositol 3-phosphate and dynamically connected to the endoplasmic reticulum.</a> J Cell Biol. 182, 685-701 (2008).</li><li>Walker, S., Chandra, P., Manifava, M., Axe, E., Ktistakis, N. T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Making+autophagosomes:+localized+synthesis+of+phosphatidylinositol+3-phosphate+holds+the+clue.">Making autophagosomes: localized synthesis of phosphatidylinositol 3-phosphate holds the clue.</a> Autophagy. 4, 1093-1096 (2008).</li></ol>

No conflicts of interest declared.

The method described in this protocol allows the visualization of a protein's localization during autophagosome formation. We have tried various methods of visualizing the events described including point-scanning confocal, spinning disk confocal and Total Internal Reflection Fluorescence (TIRF) microscopy. We have found that for general purposes standard wide-field epi-fluorescence provides the best compromise between sensitivity and resolution. This ensures good signal to noise, minimal photo-bleaching/photo-to...

Autophagy is a highly dynamic process, which requires the coordination of a large number of proteins for the final outcome of autophagosome formation1-3. Microscopy is probably the technique most commonly applied for studying autophagy4. The localization of most autophagy proteins has been extensively studied in fixed cells, both by immuno-staining the endogenous proteins and by expression of fluorescently tagged exogenous protein. In addition, Electron Microscopy (EM), alone and in combination with immuno-gold labeling, has described the fine details of these structures5,6 . Despite the fact that these techniques have established our understanding of autophagosome formation in the 3 dimensions of space, they have failed to provide sufficient amount of information about the 4th dimension - time. Live cell imaging overcomes this barrier as it allows following the formation of an autophagosome as close as possible to real time7. This technique was first employed to study autophagy by Yoshimori and colleagues8, and has been increasingly used henceforth.	
	Time-lapse microscopy captures the localization of the POI in live cells and over a period of time. By comparing this information with a well-characterized autophagy and/or organelle marker, live cell imaging analysis can put the POI in the greater spatial and temporal context of autophagosome formation. Live cell imaging analysis is based on the repetitive capturing of the POI localization along all the steps of autophagosome formation, while imaging of fixed cells is based on a single capture. Therefore, live cell imaging can prove the contribution of the POI at specific steps of autophagosome formation, while imaging of fixed cells can only assume the role of POI, based on its average localization in many autophagosomes simultaneously captured at different stages of their lifecycle.	
	Although live cell imaging is a method of high analytical power, it has some inherent limitations, which should be taken into consideration. First of all, live cell imaging requires the expression of one or more exogenous fluorescently labeled proteins. Fluorescent tags tend to be big in size and they can sometimes alter the behavior of a protein due to steric reasons. This situation is accentuated for membrane proteins, as they need to function in the limited space of the 2 dimensions of membranes. Of note, autophagosomes are membranous structures, and accordingly their formation requires a large number of membrane-associated proteins.	
	Another set of problems is connected to the expression levels of the POI. In principle, an exogenous protein should be expressed at levels comparable to the endogenous protein. This ensures that important regulators of its sub-cellular localization will not be saturated, and the analysis will be biologically relevant. Moreover, overexpression of autophagy proteins should be avoided, as when they are expressed above the endogenous levels, they tend to inhibit the autophagy response9. Conversely, since the expression levels of the POI should be high enough to allow following its localization for a good period of time without photo-bleaching, a compromise has to be reached. Achieving the optimal expression levels of an exogenous protein in mammalians cells requires a lot of fine tuning, but it is feasible by establishing and screening cell lines stably expressing different levels of the POI.	
	The spatial resolution that can be achieved with standard fluorescence microscopy is another limiting factor. Resolution may be limited for a number of reasons, but at best, lateral resolution will be around 250 nm. This means that any objects separated by a distance smaller than this will appear connected (or as a single object) and objects smaller than 250 nm will be represented in the image larger than they actually are. Therefore images should always be interpreted with this in mind and complementary techniques such as EM will be required to resolve fine ultra-structural detail.	
	Finally, live cell imaging inherently requires exposing a cell to light, potentially for a prolonged period of time. This may alter the physiological responses of a cell, a phenomenon known as photo-toxicity.	
	We have successfully used live cell imaging of the PI3P-binding protein DFCP1 to describe for the first time that autophagosomes originate from PI3P-rich ring-like structures termed omegasomes, which are in close association with ER strands10,11 . We have clearly shown that LC3-positive structures start forming in close association with omegasomes. We here suggest that employing a cell line stably expressing GFP-DFCP1 for the live cell imaging of the protein of interest, establishes a robust spatial and temporal frame for the characterization of its role in autophagosome formation.

<table border="1">
		<tbody>
		 <tr>
			<td>Name of Reagent/Material</td>
			<td>Company</td>
			<td>Catalog Number</td>
			<td>Comments</td>
		 </tr>
		 <tr>
			<td>DMEM</td>
			<td>Invitrogen</td>
			<td>41965</td>
			<td></td>
		 </tr>
		 <tr>
			<td>OptiMEM I</td>
			<td>Invitrogen</td>
			<td>31985-062</td>
			<td></td>
		 </tr>
		 <tr>
			<td>MitoTracker Red FM</td>
			<td>Invitrogen</td>
			<td>M22425</td>
			<td></td>
		 </tr>
		 <tr>
			<td>LysoTracker Red DND-99</td>
			<td>Invitrogen</td>
			<td>L-7528</td>
			<td></td>
		 </tr>
		 <tr>
			<td>X-tremeGENE 9 DNA Transfection Reagent</td>
			<td>Roche Applied Science</td>
			<td>6365787001</td>
			<td></td>
		 </tr>
		 <tr>
			<td>22 mm coverslips</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>631-0159</td>
			<td></td>
		 </tr>
		 <tr>
			<td>35 mm plates</td>
			<td>Fisher NUNC</td>
			<td>153066</td>
			<td></td>
		 </tr>
		 <tr>
			<td>Silicon grease</td>
			<td>RS Components Ltd. </td>
			<td>RS 494-124</td>
			<td></td>
		 </tr>
		 <tr>
			<td>O-rings</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Custom made</td>
		 </tr>
		 <tr>
			<td>Attofluor Cell Chamber</td>
			<td>Invitrogen</td>
			<td>A-7816</td>
			<td>Suggested alternative to custom-made O-rings</td>
		 </tr>
		 <tr>
			<td>Microscope</td>
			<td>Olympus</td>
			<td>IX81</td>
			<td>Inverted microscope</td>
		 </tr>
		 <tr>
			<td>Objective</td>
			<td>Olympus</td>
			<td>UPLSAPO 100XO</td>
			<td>N.A. 1.4, W.D. 0.13, FN 26.5</td>
		 </tr>
		 <tr>
			<td>Camera</td>
			<td>Hamamatsu</td>
			<td>ORCA-R2 C10600 10B</td>
			<td>Progressive scan interline CCD</td>
		 </tr>
		 <tr>
			<td>Illuminator</td>
			<td>TILL Photonics</td>
			<td>Polychrome V</td>
			<td>Ultrafast monochromator</td>
		 </tr>
		 <tr>
			<td>Incubation chamber</td>
			<td>Solent Scientific</td>
			<td>Cell^R IX81</td>
			<td></td>
		 </tr>
		 <tr>
			<td>Software</td>
			<td>Olympus</td>
			<td>SIS xcellence</td>
			<td></td>
		 </tr>
		</tbody>
 </table>

live cell imaging of early autophagy events: omegasomes and beyond

Autophagy is a cellular response triggered by the lack of nutrients, especially the absence of amino acids. Autophagy is defined by the formation of double membrane structures, called autophagosomes, that sequester cytoplasm, long-lived proteins and protein aggregates, defective organelles, and even viruses or bacteria. Autophagosomes eventually fuse with lysosomes leading to bulk degradation of their content, with the produced nutrients being recycled back to the cytoplasm. Therefore, autophagy is crucial for cell homeostasis, and dysregulation of autophagy can lead to disease, most notably neurodegeneration, ageing and cancer.	
	Autophagosome formation is a very elaborate process, for which cells have allocated a specific group of proteins, called the core autophagy machinery. The core autophagy machinery is functionally complemented by additional proteins involved in diverse cellular processes, e.g. in membrane trafficking, in mitochondrial and lysosomal biology. Coordination of these proteins for the formation and degradation of autophagosomes constitutes the highly dynamic and sophisticated response of autophagy. Live cell imaging allows one to follow the molecular contribution of each autophagy-related protein down to the level of a single autophagosome formation event and in real time, therefore this technique offers a high temporal and spatial resolution.	
	Here we use a cell line stably expressing GFP-DFCP1, to establish a spatial and temporal context for our analysis. DFCP1 marks omegasomes, which are precursor structures leading to autophagosomes formation. A protein of interest (POI) can be marked with either a red or cyan fluorescent tag. Different organelles, like the ER, mitochondria and lysosomes, are all involved in different steps of autophagosome formation, and can be marked using a specific tracker dye. Time-lapse microscopy of autophagy in this experimental set up, allows information to be extracted about the fourth dimension, i.e. time. Hence we can follow the contribution of the POI to autophagy in space and time.

In the protocol described, we have used time-lapse microscopy to follow the localization of CFP-tagged LC3 in a cell line stably expressing GFP-tagged DFCP1, under autophagy inducing conditions. The outcome of this experiment is the capture of 2 series or stacks of images, one from the green and one from the blue channel, corresponding to GFP-DFCP1 and CFP-LC3. We have further analyzed these videos using ImageJ, in order to create montages corresponding to single autophagosome formation events, as described in the...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Live Cell Imaging of Early Autophagy Events: Omegasomes and Beyond at JoVE.com

Live Cell Imaging of Early Autophagy Events: Omegasomes and Beyond

Time-lapse microscopy of fluorescently labeled autophagy markers allows monitoring of the dynamic autophagy response with high temporal resolution. Using specific autophagy and organelle markers in a combination of 3 different colors, we can follow the contribution of a protein to autophagosome formation in a robust spatial and temporal context.

Autophagy is a  cellular response triggered by the lack of nutrients, especially the absence of  amino acids. Autophagy is defined by the formation of ...

live-cell-imaging-of-early-autophagy-events-omegasomes-and-beyond

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Biology

18.4K vues.  The Babraham Institute. Microscopie time-lapse de marqueurs de l'autophagie marquées par fluorescence permet le suivi de la réponse de l'autophagie dynamique avec une haute résolution temporelle. Utilisation de l'autophagie spécifique et marqueurs organites dans une combinaison de 3 couleurs différentes, nous pouvons suivre la contribution d'une protéine à la formation autophagosome dans un contexte spatial et temporel robuste.

Vidéo: Live Cell Imaging of Early Autophagy Events: Omegasomes and Beyond

Live Imaging Of Drosophila melanogaster Embryonic Hemocyte Migrations

Many studies address cell migration using in vitro methods, whereas the physiologically relevant environment is that of the organism itself. Here we present a protocol for the mounting of Drosophila melanogaster embryos and subsequent live imaging of fluorescently labeled hemocytes, the embryonic macrophages of this organism. Using the Gal4-uas system1 we drive the expression of a variety of genetically encoded, fluorescently tagged markers in hemocytes to follow their developmental dispersal throughout the embryo. Following collection of embryos at the desired stage of development, the outer chorion is removed and the embryos are then mounted in halocarbon oil between a hydrophobic, gas-permeable membrane and a glass coverslip for live imaging. In addition to gross migratory parameters such as speed and directionality, higher resolution imaging coupled with the use of fluorescent reporters of F-actin and microtubules can provide more detailed information concerning the dynamics of these cytoskeletal components.

Live Imaging Of Drosophila melanogaster Embryonic Hemocyte Migrations

Drosophila hemocytes disperse over the entirety of the developing embryo. This protocol demonstrates how to mount and image these migrations using embryos with fluorescently labelled hemocytes.

Many studies address cell migration using in vitro methods, whereas the physiologically relevant environment is that of the organism itself. Here we ...

FRET Microscopy for Real-time Monitoring of Signaling Events in Live Cells Using Unimolecular Biosensors

F&ouml;rster resonance energy transfer (FRET) microscopy continues to gain increasing interest as a technique for real-time monitoring of biochemical and signaling events in live cells and tissues. Compared to classical biochemical methods, this novel technology is characterized by high temporal and spatial resolution. FRET experiments use various genetically-encoded biosensors which can be expressed and imaged over time in situ or in vivo1-2. Typical biosensors can either report protein-protein interactions by measuring FRET between a fluorophore-tagged pair of proteins or conformational changes in a single protein which harbors donor and acceptor fluorophores interconnected with a binding moiety for a molecule of interest3-4. Bimolecular biosensors for protein-protein interactions include, for example, constructs designed to monitor G-protein activation in cells5, while the unimolecular sensors measuring conformational changes are widely used to image second messengers such as calcium6, cAMP7-8, inositol phosphates9 and cGMP10-11. Here we describe how to build a customized epifluorescence FRET imaging system from single commercially available components and how to control the whole setup using the Micro-Manager freeware. This simple but powerful instrument is designed for routine or more sophisticated FRET measurements in live cells. Acquired images are processed using self-written plug-ins to visualize changes in FRET ratio in real-time during any experiments before being stored in a graphics format compatible with the build-in ImageJ freeware used for subsequent data analysis. This low-cost system is characterized by high flexibility and can be successfully used to monitor various biochemical events and signaling molecules by a plethora of available FRET biosensors in live cells and tissues. As an example, we demonstrate how to use this imaging system to perform real-time monitoring of cAMP in live 293A cells upon stimulation with a &beta;-adrenergic receptor agonist and blocker.

F&#246;rster resonance energy transfer (FRET) microscopy is a powerful technique for real-time monitoring of signaling events in live cells using various biosensors as reporters. Here we describe how to build a customized epifluorescence FRET imaging system from commercially available components and how to use it for FRET experiments.

F&ouml;rster resonance energy transfer (FRET) microscopy  continues to gain increasing interest as a technique for real-time monitoring  of biochemical ...

Two- and Three-Dimensional Live Cell Imaging of DNA Damage Response Proteins

Double-strand breaks (DSBs) are the most deleterious DNA lesions a cell can encounter. If left unrepaired, DSBs harbor great potential to generate mutations and chromosomal aberrations1. To prevent this trauma from catalyzing genomic instability, it is crucial for cells to detect DSBs, activate the DNA damage response (DDR), and repair the DNA. When stimulated, the DDR works to preserve genomic integrity by triggering cell cycle arrest to allow for repair to take place or force the cell to undergo apoptosis. The predominant mechanisms of DSB repair occur through nonhomologous end-joining (NHEJ) and homologous recombination repair (HRR) (reviewed in2). There are many proteins whose activities must be precisely orchestrated for the DDR to function properly. Herein, we describe a method for 2- and 3-dimensional (D) visualization of one of these proteins, 53BP1.
The p53-binding protein 1 (53BP1) localizes to areas of DSBs by binding to modified histones3,4, forming foci within 5-15 minutes5. The histone modifications and recruitment of 53BP1 and other DDR proteins to DSB sites are believed to facilitate the structural rearrangement of chromatin around areas of damage and contribute to DNA repair6. Beyond direct participation in repair, additional roles have been described for 53BP1 in the DDR, such as regulating an intra-S checkpoint, a G2/M checkpoint, and activating downstream DDR proteins7-9. Recently, it was discovered that 53BP1 does not form foci in response to DNA damage induced during mitosis, instead waiting for cells to enter G1 before localizing to the vicinity of DSBs6. DDR proteins such as 53BP1 have been found to associate with mitotic structures (such as kinetochores) during the progression through mitosis10.
In this protocol we describe the use of 2- and 3-D live cell imaging to visualize the formation of 53BP1 foci in response to the DNA damaging agent camptothecin (CPT), as well as 53BP1's behavior during mitosis. Camptothecin is a topoisomerase I inhibitor that primarily causes DSBs during DNA replication. To accomplish this, we used a previously described 53BP1-mCherry fluorescent fusion protein construct consisting of a 53BP1 protein domain able to bind DSBs11. In addition, we used a histone H2B-GFP fluorescent fusion protein construct able to monitor chromatin dynamics throughout the cell cycle but in particular during mitosis12. Live cell imaging in multiple dimensions is an excellent tool to deepen our understanding of the function of DDR proteins in eukaryotic cells.

This protocol describes a method for visualizing a DNA double-strand break signaling protein activated in response to DNA damage as well as its localization during mitosis.

Double-strand breaks (DSBs) are the most deleterious DNA lesions a cell can encounter. If left unrepaired, DSBs harbor great potential to generate ...

4D Imaging of Protein Aggregation in Live Cells

One of the key tasks of any living cell is maintaining the proper folding of newly synthesized proteins in the face of ever-changing environmental conditions and an intracellular environment that is tightly packed, sticky, and hazardous to protein stability1. The ability to dynamically balance protein production, folding and degradation demands highly-specialized quality control machinery, whose absolute necessity is observed best when it malfunctions. Diseases such as ALS, Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, and certain forms of Cystic Fibrosis have a direct link to protein folding quality control components2, and therefore future therapeutic development requires a basic understanding of underlying processes. Our experimental challenge is to understand how cells integrate damage signals and mount responses that are tailored to diverse circumstances.
The primary reason why protein misfolding represents an existential threat to the cell is the propensity of incorrectly folded proteins to aggregate, thus causing a global perturbation of the crowded and delicate intracellular folding environment1. The folding health, or "proteostasis," of the cellular proteome is maintained, even under the duress of aging, stress and oxidative damage, by the coordinated action of different mechanistic units in an elaborate quality control system3,4. A specialized machinery of molecular chaperones can bind non-native polypeptides and promote their folding into the native state1, target them for degradation by the ubiquitin-proteasome system5, or direct them to protective aggregation inclusions6-9.
In eukaryotes, the cytosolic aggregation quality control load is partitioned between two compartments8-10: the juxtanuclear quality control compartment (JUNQ) and the insoluble protein deposit (IPOD) (Figure 1 - model). Proteins that are ubiquitinated by the protein folding quality control machinery are delivered to the JUNQ, where they are processed for degradation by the proteasome. Misfolded proteins that are not ubiquitinated are diverted to the IPOD, where they are actively aggregated in a protective compartment.
Up until this point, the methodological paradigm of live-cell fluorescence microscopy has largely been to label proteins and track their locations in the cell at specific time-points and usually in two dimensions. As new technologies have begun to grant experimenters unprecedented access to the submicron scale in living cells, the dynamic architecture of the cytosol has come into view as a challenging new frontier for experimental characterization. We present a method for rapidly monitoring the 3D spatial distributions of multiple fluorescently labeled proteins in the yeast cytosol over time. 3D timelapse (4D imaging) is not merely a technical challenge; rather, it also facilitates a dramatic shift in the conceptual framework used to analyze cellular structure.
We utilize a cytosolic folding sensor protein in live yeast to visualize distinct fates for misfolded proteins in cellular aggregation quality control, using rapid 4D fluorescent imaging. The temperature sensitive mutant of the Ubc9 protein10-12 (Ubc9ts) is extremely effective both as a sensor of cellular proteostasis, and a physiological model for tracking aggregation quality control. As with most ts proteins, Ubc9ts is fully folded and functional at permissive temperatures due to active cellular chaperones. Above 30 &deg;C, or when the cell faces misfolding stress, Ubc9ts misfolds and follows the fate of a native globular protein that has been misfolded due to mutation, heat denaturation, or oxidative damage. By fusing it to GFP or other fluorophores, it can be tracked in 3D as it forms Stress Foci, or is directed to JUNQ or IPOD.

Cellular viability depends on timely and efficient management of protein misfolding. Here we describe a method for visualizing the different potential fates of a misfolded protein: refolding, degradation, or sequestration in inclusions. We demonstrate the use of a folding sensor, Ubc9ts, for monitoring proteostasis and aggregation quality control in live cells using 4D microscopy.

One of the key tasks of any living cell is maintaining the proper folding of newly synthesized proteins in the face of ever-changing environmental ...

Live Imaging of Apoptotic Cell Clearance during Drosophila Embryogenesis

The proper elimination of unwanted or aberrant cells through apoptosis and subsequent phagocytosis (apoptotic cell clearance) is crucial for normal development in all metazoan organisms. Apoptotic cell clearance is a highly dynamic process intimately associated with cell death; unengulfed apoptotic cells are barely seen in vivo under normal conditions. In order to understand the different steps of apoptotic cell clearance and to compare 'professional' phagocytes - macrophages and dendritic cells to 'non-professional' - tissue-resident neighboring cells, in vivo live imaging of the process is extremely valuable. Here we describe a protocol for studying apoptotic cell clearance in live Drosophila embryos. To follow the dynamics of different steps in phagocytosis we use specific markers for apoptotic cells and phagocytes. In addition, we can monitor two phagocyte systems in parallel: 'professional' macrophages and 'semi-professional' glia in the developing central nervous system (CNS). The method described here employs the Drosophila embryo as an excellent model for real time studies of apoptotic cell clearance.

Live Imaging of Apoptotic Cell Clearance during Drosophila Embryogenesis

Here we describe an effective method for studying dynamics of apoptotic cell clearance in vivo. This method employs live Drosophila embryos as a powerful model for monitoring phagocytosis of apoptotic cells using specific labeling of apoptotic cells and phagocytes.

The  proper elimination of unwanted or aberrant cells through apoptosis and  subsequent phagocytosis (apoptotic cell clearance) is crucial for normal  ...

Activating Autophagy by Aerobic Exercise in Mice

Autophagy is a lysosomal degradation pathway essential for cell homeostasis, function and differentiation. Under stress conditions, autophagy is induced and targets various cargos, such as bulk cytosol, damaged organelles and misfolded proteins, for degradation in lysosomes. Resulting nutrient molecules are recycled back to the cytosol for new protein synthesis and ATP production. Upregulation of autophagy has beneficial effects against the pathogenesis of many diseases, and pharmacological and physiological strategies to activate autophagy have been reported. Aerobic exercise is recently identified as an efficient autophagy inducer in multiple organs in mice, including muscle, liver, heart and brain. Here we show procedures to induce autophagy in vivo by either forced treadmill exercise or voluntary wheel running. We also demonstrate microscopic and biochemical methods to quantitatively analyze autophagy levels in mouse tissues, using the marker proteins LC3 and p62 that are transported to and degraded in lysosomes along with autophagosomes.

Autophagy activation is beneficial in the prevention of a number of diseases. One of the physiological approaches to induce autophagy in vivo is physical exercise. Here we show how to activate autophagy by aerobic exercise and measure autophagy levels in mice.

Autophagy is a lysosomal degradation pathway essential for cell homeostasis, function and differentiation. Under stress conditions, autophagy is induced ...

Characterization of Calcification Events Using Live Optical and Electron Microscopy Techniques in a Marine Tubeworm

Characterizing the first event of biological production of calcium carbonate requires a combination of microscopy approaches. First, intracellular pH distribution and calcium ions can be observed using live microscopy over time. This allows identification of the life stage and the tissue with the feature of interest for further electron microscopy studies. Life stage and tissues of interest are typically higher in pH and Ca signals. 
Here, using H. elegans, we present a protocol to characterize the presence of calcium carbonate structures in a biological specimen on the scanning electron microscope (SEM), using energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) to visualize elemental composition, using electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) to determine the presence of crystalline structures, and using transmission electron microscopy (TEM) to analyze the composition and structure of the material. In this protocol, a focused ion beam (FIB) is used to isolate samples with dimension suitable for TEM analysis. As FIB is a site specific technique, we demonstrate how information from the previous techniques can be used to identify the region of interest, where Ca signals are highest.

We demonstrate the use of various microscopy methods that are useful in observing the calcification of a tubeworm, Hydroides elegans, as well as locating and characterizing the first calcified material. Live microscopy and electron microscopy are used together to provide functional and material information that are important in studying biomineralization.

Characterizing the first event of biological production of calcium carbonate requires a combination of microscopy approaches. First, intracellular pH ...

Live-cell Imaging of Platelet Degranulation and Secretion Under Flow

Blood platelets are essential players in hemostasis, the formation of thrombi to seal vascular breaches. They are also involved in thrombosis, the formation of thrombi that occlude the vasculature and injure organs, with life-threatening consequences. This motivates scientific research on platelet function and the development of methods to track cell-biological processes as they occur under flow conditions.
A variety of flow models are available for the study of platelet adhesion and aggregation, two key phenomena in platelet biology. This work describes a method to study real-time platelet degranulation under flow during activation. The method makes use of a flow chamber coupled to a syringe-pump setup that is placed under a wide-field, inverted, LED-based fluorescence microscope. The setup described here allows for the simultaneous excitation of multiple fluorophores that are delivered by fluorescently labeled antibodies or fluorescent dyes. After live-cell imaging experiments, the cover glasses can be further processed and analyzed using static microscopy (i.e., confocal microscopy or scanning electron microscopy).

This work describes a fluorescence microscopy-based method for the study of platelet adhesion, spreading, and secretion under flow. This versatile platform enables the investigation of platelet function for mechanistic research on thrombosis and hemostasis.

Blood platelets are essential players in hemostasis, the formation of thrombi to seal vascular breaches. They are also involved in thrombosis, the ...

Super-Resolution Live Cell Imaging of Subcellular Structures

There has long been a crucial tradeoff between spatial and temporal resolution in imaging. Imaging beyond the diffraction limit of light has traditionally been restricted to be used only on fixed samples or live cells outside of tissue labeled with strong fluorescent signal. Current super-resolution live cell imaging techniques require the use of special fluorescence probes, high illumination, multiple image acquisitions with post-acquisition processing, or often a combination of these processes. These prerequisites significantly limit the biological samples and contexts that this technique can be applied to.
Here we describe a method to perform super-resolution (~140 nm XY-resolution) time-lapse fluorescence live cell imaging in situ. This technique is also compatible with low fluorescent intensity, for example, EGFP or mCherry endogenously tagged at lowly expressed genes. As a proof-of-principle, we have used this method to visualize multiple subcellular structures in the Drosophila testis. During tissue preparation, both the cellular structure and tissue morphology are maintained within the dissected testis. Here, we use this technique to image microtubule dynamics, the interactions between microtubules and the nuclear membrane, as well as the attachment of microtubules to centromeres.
This technique requires special procedures in sample preparation, sample mounting and immobilizing of specimens. Additionally, the specimens must be maintained for several hours after dissection without compromising cellular function and activity. While we have optimized the conditions for live super-resolution imaging specifically in Drosophila male germline stem cells (GSCs) and progenitor germ cells in dissected testis tissue, this technique is broadly applicable to a variety of different cell types. The ability to observe cells under their physiological conditions without sacrificing either spatial or temporal resolution will serve as an invaluable tool to researchers seeking to address crucial questions in cell biology.

Presented here is a protocol for super-resolution live-cell imaging in intact tissue. We have standardized the conditions for imaging a highly sensitive adult stem cell population in its native tissue environment. This technique involves balancing temporal and spatial resolution to allow for the direct observation of biological phenomena in live tissue.

There has long been a crucial tradeoff between spatial and temporal resolution in imaging. Imaging beyond the diffraction limit of light has traditionally ...

Quantification of Mitochondrial Membrane Potential and Superoxide Levels

Fluorescence-Based Quantification of Mitochondrial Membrane Potential and Superoxide Levels Using Live Imaging in HeLa Cells

Mitochondria are dynamic organelles critical for metabolic homeostasis by controlling energy production via ATP synthesis. To support cellular metabolism, various mitochondrial quality control mechanisms cooperate to maintain a healthy mitochondrial network. One such pathway is mitophagy, where PTEN-induced kinase 1 (PINK1) and Parkin phospho-ubiquitination of damaged mitochondria facilitate autophagosome sequestration and subsequent removal from the cell via lysosome fusion. Mitophagy is important for cellular homeostasis, and mutations in Parkin are linked to Parkinson's disease (PD). Due to these findings, there has been a significant emphasis on investigating mitochondrial damage and turnover to understand the molecular mechanisms and dynamics of mitochondrial quality control. Here, live-cell imaging was used to visualize the mitochondrial network of HeLa cells, to quantify the mitochondrial membrane potential and superoxide levels following treatment with carbonyl cyanide m-chlorophenyl hydrazone (CCCP), a mitochondrial uncoupling agent. In addition, a PD-linked mutation of Parkin (ParkinT240R) that inhibits Parkin-dependent mitophagy was expressed to determine how mutant expression impacts the mitochondrial network compared to cells expressing wild-type Parkin. The protocol outlined here describes a simple workflow using fluorescence-based approaches to quantify mitochondrial membrane potential and superoxide levels effectively.

Author Spotlight: Fluorescence-Based Quantification of Mitochondrial Membrane Potential and Superoxide Levels Using Live Imaging in HeLa Cells  

This technique describes an effective workflow to visualize and quantitatively measure mitochondrial membrane potential and superoxide levels within HeLa cells using fluorescence-based live imaging.

Mitochondria are dynamic organelles critical for metabolic homeostasis by controlling energy production via ATP synthesis. To support cellular metabolism, ...