This work has been supported by NIH HL-1034.

The Johns Hopkins University Animal Care and Use Committee approved all animal protocols.
1. Equipment
The composite system set up, ready to measure the PV curve is shown in Figure 1.
<ol>
	<li>Volume measurement:
	<ol>
		<li>Generate a constant rate of inflation and deflation by using a syringe pump with a switch that allows the user to quickly reverse the pump after reaching the pressure limits. For mouse PV curves, use a very lightly greased 5 ml glass syringe with the initial volume (prior to inflation) set at 3 ml of air. 3 ml is sufficiently large to measure volumes in nearly all mouse PV curves.</li>
		<li>Measure the volume delivered by the pump by attaching a linear differential transformer to the pump housing, with a small sensor rod connected to the moving syringe plunger. 
		Note: An empirical means to correct for gas compression in the system is described under the PV curve recording section.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Pressure measurement:
	<ol>
		<li>Use a standard inexpensive pressure gauge with a range of 0-60 cm H2O (0-1 PSI).</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Recording measurement:
	<ol>
		<li>To record the PV curve use any digital recorder with XY capabilities (e.g., PowerLab). Set one channel to record the corrected volume signal and another channel to record the transpulmonary pressure (Ptp), in order to graph the PV curve. Use a bridge preamplifier that connects to the main Powerlab to measure the pressure. Calibrate the pressure channel from 0-40 cm H2O, and calibrate the volume channel from 0-3 ml.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
2. Correction for Gas Compression
Note: This is a critical initial step in the set up, since as the pressure increases, the gas volume decreases, and thus the volume of air delivered to the mouse will be increasingly less than the displacement of the syringe barrel.
<ol>
	<li>Close the stopcock that will connect the PV system to the lungs, so no gas can leave the system. Start the infusion and observe if the corrected Volume channel on the recorder shows any measurable changes as the pressure increases to about 40 cm H2O. If so, then correct as in the next steps.
	<ol>
		<li>Correct for gas compression empirically by subtracting from the plunger displacement measurement (i.e., the uncorrected volume) a term proportional to the inflation pressure. Do this on a Powerlab channel (called Vc) to show the volume signal minus a coefficient times the pressure.</li>
		<li>Determine the coefficient in the equation. First, make an initial guess, turn the chart recording on, and start the pump. Since the inflation tubing is sealed, adjust the pressure coefficient multiplier to make the Vc channel read zero as the pressure rises from 0-40 cm H2O. If it goes up or down, simply adjust the correction factor until it stays flat over this pressure range. This correction factor will always be the same, if the same 3 ml starting volume in the syringe is not changed.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
3. Experimental Tests in Mice
<ol>
	<li>Procedure for measurement of the PV curve in mice. All animal protocols were approved by the Johns Hopkins University Animal Care and Use Committee.
	<ol>
		<li>Anesthetize mice (C57BL/6 mice at 6-12 weeks of age) with ketamine (90 mg/kg) and xylazine (15 mg/kg), and confirm anesthesia by the absence of reflex motion. 
		Note: The PV curve can be completed in anesthetized mice in less than 10 min and is a terminal procedure.&#160;</li>
		<li>Tracheostomize the mice with an 18 G stub needle cannula. Do this by making a small incision in the skin overlying the trachea, locating the trachea, then making a small slit in the trachea, where the stub needle can be inserted. Secure the cannula by tying with thread.</li>
		<li>Allow the mice to breath 100% oxygen for at least 4 min. This can be via spontaneous breathing from a bag or with a ventilator nominally set with a tidal volume of 0.2 ml at 150 breaths/min.</li>
		<li>Close the tracheal cannula and allow 3-4 min for the mouse to absorb all the oxygen. This oxygen absorption procedure results the death of the animals and in a nearly complete degassing of the lung11. Confirm death of the mouse by measuring the cessation of the heartbeat with ECG electrodes or direct observation.</li>
		<li>Once the degassing of the lung is complete and the lung volume is zero, begin inflating the lung with room air in the syringe pump&#160;at a rate of 3 ml/min. Monitor the pressure trace on the digital recorder, and when it reaches 35 cm H2O, reverse the pump.</li>
		<li>Follow the deflation curve until pressure reaches negative 10 cm H2O, by which time the airways have collapsed, trapping air in alveoli preventing further volume reduction. Immediately reverse the pump again, allowing the lung to reinflate as the collapsed airways open. This heterogeneous opening is normally apparent by the noisy looking inflation limb at the initial part of this 2nd inflation.</li>
		<li>When the pressure again reaches 35 cm H2O, reverse the pump direction, and continue to deflate the lung until this 2nd deflation limb reaches 0 cm H2O. Then stop the pump.</li>
		<li>View the PowerLab chart record of pressure and flow and the PV curve. Then analyze the PV curve to detect phenotypic changes in lung parenchyma that occur with different lung pathologies.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>

<ol>
	<li>Neergaard, K. v. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Neue+Auffasungen+&#252;ber+einn+Grundbergriff+der+Atemtechnik.+Die+Retraktionskraft+der+unge,+abhangig+von+den+Oberflachenspannung+in+den+Alveolen.+(New+interpretations+of+basic+concepts+of+respiratory+mechanics.+Correlation+of+pulmonary+recoil+force+with+surface+tension+in+the+alveoli.).">Neue Auffasungen &#252;ber einn Grundbergriff der Atemtechnik. Die Retraktionskraft der unge, abhangig von den Oberflachenspannung in den Alveolen. (New interpretations of basic concepts of respiratory mechanics. Correlation of pulmonary recoil force with surface tension in the alveoli.).</a> Zeitschrift Fur Gesamte Experi Medizin. 66, 373-394 (1929).</li><li>Hildebrandt, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Pressure-volume+data+of+cat+lung+interpreted+by+a+plastoelastic,+linear+viscoelastic+model.">Pressure-volume data of cat lung interpreted by a plastoelastic, linear viscoelastic model.</a> J. Appl. Physiol. 28, 365-372 (1970).</li><li>Hoppin, F. G., Hildebrandt, J., West, J. B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Bioengineering Aspects of the Lung. , 83-162 (1977).</li><li>Avery, M. E., Mead, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Surface+properties+in+relation+to+atelectasis+and+hyaline+membrane+disease).">Surface properties in relation to atelectasis and hyaline membrane disease).</a> AMA. J. Dis. Child. 97, 517-523 (1959).</li><li>Clements, J. A., Hustead, R. F., Johnson, R. P., Gribetz, I. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Pulmonary+surface+tension+and+alveolar+stability.">Pulmonary surface tension and alveolar stability.</a> Tech Rep CRDLR US Army Chem. Res. Dev. Lab. 3052, 1-24 (1961).</li><li>Radford, E. P., Remington, J. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Tissue Elasticity. , 177-190 (1957).</li><li>Mitzner, W., Johnson, J. W. C., Scott, R., London, W. T., Palmer, A. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Effect+of+betamethasone+on+the+pressure-volume+relationship+of+fetal+rhesus+monkey+lung.">Effect of betamethasone on the pressure-volume relationship of fetal rhesus monkey lung.</a> Journal of Applied Physiology. 47, 377-382 (1979).</li><li>Smaldone, G. C., Mitzner, W., Itoh, H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+role+of+alveolar+recruitment+in+lung+inflation:+Influence+on+pressure-volume+hysteresis.">The role of alveolar recruitment in lung inflation: Influence on pressure-volume hysteresis.</a> Journal of Applied Physiology. 55, 1321-1332 (1983).</li><li>Tankersley, C. G., Rabold, R., Mitzner, W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Differential+lung+mechanics+are+genetically+determined+in+inbred+murine+strains.">Differential lung mechanics are genetically determined in inbred murine strains.</a> Journal of Applied Physiology. 86, 1764-1769 (1999).</li><li>Soutiere, S. E., Mitzner, W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=On+defining+total+lung+capacity+in+the+mouse.">On defining total lung capacity in the mouse.</a> J. Appl. Physiol. 96, 1658-1664 (2004).</li><li>Stengel, P. W., Frazer, D. G., Weber, K. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Lung+degassing:+an+evaluation+of+two+methods.">Lung degassing: an evaluation of two methods.</a> Journal of Applied Physiology: Respiratory, Environmental and Exercise Physiology. 48, 370-375 (1980).</li><li>Limjunyawong, N., Mitzner, W., Horton, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+mouse+model+of+chronic+idiopathic+pulmonary+fibrosis.">A mouse model of chronic idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis.</a> Physiol Rep. 2, e00249 (2014).</li><li>Fallica, J., Das, S., Horton, M. R., Mitzner, W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Application+of+Carbon+Monoxide+Diffusing+Capacity+in+the+Mouse+Lung.">Application of Carbon Monoxide Diffusing Capacity in the Mouse Lung.</a> J. Appl. Physiol. 110, 1455-1459 (2011).</li><li>Brown, R. H., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+structural+basis+of+airways+hyperresponsiveness+in+asthma.">The structural basis of airways hyperresponsiveness in asthma.</a> J. Appl. Physiol. 101 (1), 30-39 (2006).</li><li>Smargiassi, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Ultrasonographic+Assessment+of+the+Diaphragm+in+Chronic+Obstructive+Pulmonary+Disease+Patients:+Relationships+with+Pulmonary+Function+and+the+Influence+of+Body+Composition+-+A+Pilot+Study.">Ultrasonographic Assessment of the Diaphragm in Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease Patients: Relationships with Pulmonary Function and the Influence of Body Composition - A Pilot Study.</a> Respiration: International Review of Thoracic Diseases. 87 (5), 364-371 (2014).</li><li>Mitzner, W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Airway-parenchymal+interdependence.">Airway-parenchymal interdependence.</a> Comprehensive Physiol. 2, 1921-1935 (2012).</li><li>Johnson, J. W., Permutt, S., Sipple, J. H., Salem, E. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Effect+of+Intra-Alveolar+Fluid+on+Pulmonary+Surface+Tension+Properties.">Effect of Intra-Alveolar Fluid on Pulmonary Surface Tension Properties.</a> J. Appl. Physiol. 19, 769-777 (1964).</li><li>Palmer, S., Morgan, T. E., Prueitt, J. L., Murphy, J. H., Hodson, W. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Lung+development+in+the+fetal+primate,+Macaca+nemestrina.+II.+Pressure-volume+and+phospholipid+changes.">Lung development in the fetal primate, Macaca nemestrina. II. Pressure-volume and phospholipid changes.</a> Pediatr. Res. 11, 1057-1063 (1977).</li><li>Lum, H., Mitzner, W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+species+comparisonof+alveolar+size+and+surface+forces.">A species comparisonof alveolar size and surface forces.</a> Journal of Applied Physiology. 62, 1865-1871 (1987).</li><li>Faridy, E. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Effect+of+distension+on+release+of+surfactant+in+excised+dogs'+lungs.">Effect of distension on release of surfactant in excised dogs' lungs.</a> Respir. Physiol. 27, 99-114 (1976).</li><li>Faridy, E. E., Permutt, S., Riley, R. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Effect+of+ventilation+on+surface+forces+in+excised+dogs'+lungs.">Effect of ventilation on surface forces in excised dogs' lungs.</a> J. Appl. Physiol. 21, 1453-1462 (1966).</li><li>Comroe, J. H., Forster, R. E., Dubois, A. B., Briscoe, W. A., Carlsen, E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> The Lung: Clinical Physiology and Pulmonary Function Tests. , (1962).</li><li>Martinez, F. J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+clinical+course+of+patients+with+idiopathic+pulmonary+fibrosis.">The clinical course of patients with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis.</a> Ann. Intern. Med. 142, 963-967 (2005).</li></ol>

None of the authors have any financial interests that would be in conflict with the material presented in this paper.

In this paper a straightforward reproducible method has been described to measure in mice a classical method of phenotyping lung elasticity, the total lung PV curve. Such curves were instrumental in the discovery of pulmonary surfactant and its importance in providing lung stability. Here it is shown how the PV curve is also useful in providing a means to measure several variables related to lung elasticity in adult mouse lungs. There were highly significant changes in all variables in two commonly used mouse models to g...

The mouse is now the primary animal model of a variety of lung diseases. In models of emphysema or fibrosis, the essential phenotypic changes are best assessed by measuring the changes in lung elasticity. Although there are many ways to measure elasticity, the classical method is that of the total pressure-volume (PV) curve measured from residual volume (RV) to total lung capacity (TLC). This measurement has been made on adult lungs from nearly all mammalian species dating back almost 100 years1-3. Such PV curves also played a major role in the discovery and understanding of the function of pulmonary surfactant in fetal lung development4-7. Despite the PV curve&#8217;s importance as a measurement of the lung&#8217;s phenotype, there has been no standardized way to perform this measurement. It has been done simply by inflating and deflating the lung with discrete steps (waiting a variable time for equilibration after each) or with pumps that can continuously inflate and deflate the lung. The PV curve is often done over a volume range between zero and some user-define lung capacity, but the time duration of each pressure volume loop reported by different labs has been extremely variable, varying from a few sec8 to hr2. Some investigators refer to this total lung PV curve as static or quasistatic, but these are qualitative terms that offer little insight, and they are not used here. In addition, the PV curve has not been widely reported in the mouse, despite the fact that it can provide useful information on the macroscopic effects of structural changes in the lung.
Several issues have resulted in variability in PV curve acquisition including: 1) the rate of inflation and deflation; 2) the pressure excursions for inflation and deflation; and 3) the means to determine an absolute lung volume measurement. In the method present here, a rate of 3 ml/min was chosen as a compromise, being not too short as to reflect the dynamic elasticity associated with normal ventilation and not too slow as to make the measurement impractical, particularly when studying large cohorts. Since a nominal total lung capacity in a C57BL/6 healthy mouse is on the order of 1.2 ml9, this rate typically allows two complete closed PV loops to be done in about 1.5 min.
In the extended literature where PV curves have been reported, the peak inflation pressure used has been extremely variable, varying from as low as 20 to over 40 cm H2O. Part of this variability may be related to species, but a primary goal of setting the upper pressure limit for PV curves is to inflate the lung to total lung capacity (TLC), or maximal lung volume. The TLC in humans is defined by the maximal voluntary effort an individual can make, but unfortunately this can never be duplicated in any animal model. Thus, the maximal volume in experimental PV curves is determined by a maximal pressure arbitrarily set by the investigator. The goal is to set a pressure where the PV curve is flat, but unfortunately the inflation limb of a mammalian lung PV curve is never flat. So most investigators set a pressure where the inflation curve begins to flatten substantially, typically 30 cm H2O. In the mouse, however, the PV curve is even more complex with a double hump on the inflation limb, and where this inflation limb is often still rising steeply at 30 cm H2O10, so 30 is not a good end point for the PV curve. For this reason, we use 35 cm H2O as the pressure limit for the mouse PV curve, which is a pressure at which the inflation limbs of all strains we have examined begin to flatten.
Since the PV curve itself is very nonlinear, the appearance of a PV loop will depend on the volume from where the curve starts. Some commercial ventilators allow users to do large PV loops, starting from FRC, but if the FRC volume is unknown then it is impossible to interpret changes in such PV curve with any pathology, since these changes could simply result from a change in starting volume, and not structural alterations in the lung. Thus without an absolute volume measurement, PV curves are almost impossible to interpret and thus have little utility. Although, there are several ways to measure lung volumes, these&#160;are often cumbersome and require special equipment. In the simple approach described here, the PV curve starts at zero volume after an in vivo degassing procedure.
In summary, this paper demonstrates a straightforward method to standardize lung PV curve measurement in the mouse lung, and defines several metrics that can be calculated from this curve that are linked to lung structure. The PV curve thus provides a pulmonary function test that has direct application in being able to detect phenotypic structural changes in mice with common lung pathologies such as emphysema and fibrosis.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="692">
	<tbody>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:244px;">Name of Material/ Equipment</td>
			<td style="width:127px;">Company</td>
			<td style="width:155px;">Catalog Number</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">Comments/Description</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:244px;"></td>
			<td style="width:127px;"></td>
			<td style="width:155px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:244px;"></td>
			<td style="width:127px;"></td>
			<td style="width:155px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:244px;">&#160;Syringe Pump</td>
			<td style="width:127px;">Harvard Apparatus</td>
			<td>55-2226</td>
			<td>Infuse/Withdraw syringe pump</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;">Pump 22 Reversing Switch&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:127px;">Harvard Apparatus</td>
			<td>552217</td>
			<td>&#160;included with pump</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;"></td>
			<td style="width:127px;"></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:244px;">Linear displacement transformer</td>
			<td style="width:127px;">Trans-Tek, Inc.</td>
			<td style="width:155px;">0244-0000</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:244px;"></td>
			<td style="width:127px;"></td>
			<td style="width:155px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:244px;">5 mL glass syringe</td>
			<td style="width:127px;">Becton Dickenson</td>
			<td style="width:155px;"></td>
			<td>Several other possible vendors</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:244px;"></td>
			<td style="width:127px;"></td>
			<td style="width:155px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:244px;">Digital recorder</td>
			<td style="width:127px;">ADInstruments</td>
			<td>PL3504</td>
			<td>Several other possible vendors</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Bridge Amp Signal Conditioner</td>
			<td style="width:127px;">ADInstruments</td>
			<td>FE221</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;"></td>
			<td style="width:127px;"></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:244px;">Gas tank,100% oxygen</td>
			<td style="width:127px;">Airgas, Inc</td>
			<td style="width:155px;"></td>
			<td>Any supplier or hospital source will work</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:244px;"></td>
			<td style="width:127px;"></td>
			<td style="width:155px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Pressure Transducer - 0-1psi&#160; millivolt output</td>
			<td>Omega Engineering</td>
			<td>PX-137</td>
			<td>Range: &#8776;0-60 cmH2O</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

measurement of the pressure-volume curve in mouse lungs

In recent decades the mouse has become the primary animal model of a variety of lung diseases. In models of emphysema or fibrosis, the essential phenotypic changes are best assessed by measurement of the changes in lung elasticity. To best understand specific mechanisms underlying such pathologies in mice, it is essential to make functional measurements that can reflect the developing pathology. Although there are many ways to measure elasticity, the classical method is that of the total lung pressure-volume (PV) curve done over the whole range of lung volumes. This measurement has been made on adult lungs from nearly all mammalian species dating back almost 100 years, and such PV curves also played a major role in the discovery and understanding of the function of pulmonary surfactant in fetal lung development. Unfortunately, such total PV curves have not been widely reported in the mouse, despite the fact that they can provide useful information on the macroscopic effects of structural changes in the lung. Although partial PV curves measuring just the changes in lung volume are sometimes reported, without a measure of absolute volume, the nonlinear nature of the total PV curve makes these partial ones very difficult to interpret. In the present study, we describe a standardized way to measure the total PV curve. We have then tested the ability of these curves to detect changes in mouse lung structure in two common lung pathologies, emphysema and fibrosis. Results showed significant changes in several variables consistent with expected structural changes with these pathologies. This measurement of the lung PV curve in mice thus provides a straightforward means to monitor the progression of the pathophysiologic changes over time and the potential effect of therapeutic procedures.

Although the procedure for the PV curves is demonstrated in the video only for control healthy mice, we examined the ability of the PV curve to detect functional and pathologic changes in mice with two different common pathologies, emphysema and fibrosis. Details of these traditional models described elsewhere12,13. Very briefly, after anesthesia with 3% isoflurane the emphysema was caused by 3 or 6 U porcine pancreatic elastase instilled into the trachea and studied 3 weeks later, and the fibrosis was caused ...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Measurement of the Pressure-volume Curve in Mouse Lungs at JoVE.com

Measurement of the Pressure-volume Curve in Mouse Lungs

Here we present a protocol to simply and reliably measure the lung pressure-volume curve in mice, showing that it is sufficiently sensitive to detect phenotypic parenchymal changes in two common lung pathologies, pulmonary fibrosis and emphysema. This metric provides a means to quantify the lung&#8217;s structural changes with developing pathology.

In recent decades the mouse has become the primary animal model of a variety of lung diseases. In models of emphysema or fibrosis, the essential ...

measurement-of-the-pressure-volume-curve-in-mouse-lungs

Research

Education

JoVE Core

JoVE Journal

Physics

Medicine

Unit 1

The Kinetic Theory of Gases

SCIENTISTS IN ACTION

18.5K vues.  Johns Hopkins University. Here we present a protocol to simply and reliably measure the lung pressure-volume curve in mice, showing that it is sufficiently sensitive to detect phenotypic parenchymal changes in two common lung pathologies, pulmonary fibrosis and emphysema. This metric provides a means to quantify the lung’s structural changes with developing pathology.

Vidéo: Measurement of the Pressure-volume Curve in Mouse Lungs

In vivo Measurement of the Mouse Pulmonary Endothelial Surface Layer

The endothelial glycocalyx is a layer of proteoglycans and associated glycosaminoglycans lining the vascular lumen. In vivo, the glycocalyx is highly hydrated, forming a substantial endothelial surface layer (ESL) that contributes to the maintenance of endothelial function. As the endothelial glycocalyx is often aberrant in vitro and is lost during standard tissue fixation techniques, study of the ESL requires use of intravital microscopy. To best approximate the complex physiology of the alveolar microvasculature, pulmonary intravital imaging is ideally performed on a freely-moving lung. These preparations, however, typically suffer from extensive motion artifact. We demonstrate how closed-chest intravital microscopy of a freely-moving mouse lung can be used to measure glycocalyx integrity via ESL exclusion of fluorescently-labeled high molecular weight dextrans from the endothelial surface. This non-recovery surgical technique, which requires simultaneous brightfield and fluorescent imaging of the mouse lung, allows for longitudinal observation of the subpleural microvasculature without evidence of inducing confounding lung injury.

In vivo Measurement of the Mouse Pulmonary Endothelial Surface Layer

The endothelial glycocalyx/endothelial surface layer is ideally studied using intravital microscopy. Intravital microscopy is technically challenging in a moving organ such as the lung. We demonstrate how simultaneous brightfield and fluorescent microscopy may be used to estimate endothelial surface layer thickness in a freely-moving in vivo mouse lung.

The endothelial glycocalyx is a layer of proteoglycans and associated glycosaminoglycans lining the vascular lumen. In vivo, the glycocalyx is highly ...

Technical Aspects of the Mouse Aortocaval Fistula

Technical aspects of creating an arteriovenous fistula in the mouse are discussed. Under general anesthesia, an abdominal incision is made, and the aorta and inferior vena cava (IVC) are exposed. The proximal infrarenal aorta and the distal aorta are dissected for clamp placement and needle puncture, respectively. Special attention is paid to avoid dissection between the aorta and the IVC. After clamping the aorta, a 25 G needle is used to puncture both walls of the aorta into the IVC. The surrounding connective tissue is used for hemostatic compression. Successful creation of the AVF will show pulsatile arterial blood flow in the IVC. Further confirmation of successful AVF can be achieved by post-operative Doppler ultrasound.

The goal is to produce an arteriovenous fistula that is simple and reproducible. This method does not use sutures or glue adhesive. Therefore the samples can be used with the least amount of foreign materials for analysis.

Technical aspects of creating an arteriovenous fistula in the mouse are discussed. Under general anesthesia, an abdominal incision is made, and the aorta ...

Myocardial Infarction and Functional Outcome Assessment in Pigs

Introduction of newly discovered cardiovascular therapeutics into first-in-man trials depends on a strictly regulated ethical and legal roadmap. One important prerequisite is a good understanding of all safety and efficacy aspects obtained in a large animal model that validly reflect the human scenario of myocardial infarction (MI). Pigs are widely used in this regard since their cardiac size, hemodynamics, and coronary anatomy are close to that of humans. Here, we present an effective protocol for using the porcine MI model using a closed-chest coronary balloon occlusion of the left anterior descending artery (LAD), followed by reperfusion. This approach is based on 90 min of myocardial ischemia, inducing large left ventricle infarction of the anterior, septal and inferoseptal walls. Furthermore, we present protocols for various measures of outcome that provide a wide range of information on the heart, such as cardiac systolic and diastolic function, hemodynamics, coronary flow velocity, microvascular resistance, and infarct size. This protocol can be easily tailored to meet study specific requirements for the validation of novel cardioregenerative biologics at different stages (i.e. directly after the acute ischemic insult, in the subacute setting or even in the chronic MI once scar formation has been completed). This model therefore provides a useful translational tool to study MI, subsequent adverse remodeling, and the potential of novel cardioregenerative agents.

This protocol describes the porcine myocardial infarction (MI) model using a 90 min closed-chest coronary balloon occlusion of the left anterior descending artery (LAD), followed by reperfusion. Furthermore, the protocol for several outcome parameters, such as cardiac function, hemodynamics, microvascular resistance, and infarct size, are also presented.

Introduction of newly discovered cardiovascular therapeutics into first-in-man trials depends on a strictly regulated ethical and legal roadmap. One ...

Cardiac Catheterization in Mice to Measure the Pressure Volume Relationship: Investigating the Bowditch Effect

Animal models that mimic human cardiac disorders have been created to test potential therapeutic strategies. A key component to evaluating these strategies is to examine their effects on heart function. There are several techniques to measure in vivo cardiac mechanics (e.g., echocardiography, pressure/volume relations, etc.). Compared to echocardiography, real-time left ventricular (LV) pressure/volume analysis via catheterization is more precise and insightful in assessing LV function. Additionally, LV pressure/volume analysis provides the ability to instantaneously record changes during manipulations of contractility (e.g., &#946;-adrenergic stimulation) and pathological insults (e.g., ischemia/reperfusion injury). In addition to the maximum (+dP/dt) and minimum (-dP/dt) rate of pressure change in the LV, an accurate assessment of LV function via several load-independent indexes (e.g., end systolic pressure volume relationship and preload recruitable stroke work) can be attained. Heart rate has a significant effect on LV contractility such that an increase in the heart rate is the primary mechanism to increase cardiac output (i.e., Bowditch effect). Thus, when comparing hemodynamics between experimental groups, it is necessary to have similar heart rates. Furthermore, a hallmark of many cardiomyopathy models is a decrease in contractile reserve (i.e., decreased Bowditch effect). Consequently, vital information can be obtained by determining the effects of increasing heart rate on contractility. Our and others data has demonstrated that the neuronal nitric oxide synthase (NOS1) knockout mouse has decreased contractility. Here we describe the procedure of measuring LV pressure/volume with increasing heart rates using the NOS1 knockout mouse model.

This article describes the measurement of murine left ventricular function via pressure/volume analysis at different heart rates.

Animal models that mimic human cardiac disorders have been created to test potential therapeutic strategies. A key component to evaluating these ...

Preparation Steps for Measurement of Reactivity in Mouse Retinal Arterioles Ex Vivo

Vascular insufficiency and alterations in normal retinal perfusion are among the major factors for the pathogenesis of various sight-threatening ocular diseases, such as diabetic retinopathy, hypertensive retinopathy, and possibly glaucoma. Therefore, retinal microvascular preparations are pivotal tools for physiological and pharmacological studies to delineate the underlying pathophysiological mechanisms and to design therapies for the diseases. Despite the wide use of mouse models in ophthalmic research, studies on retinal vascular reactivity are scarce in this species. A major reason for this discrepancy is the challenging isolation procedures owing to the small size of these retinal blood vessels, which is ~ &#8804; 30 &#181;m in luminal diameter. To circumvent the problem of direct isolation of these retinal microvessels for functional studies, we established an isolation and preparation technique that enables ex vivo studies of mouse retinal vasoactivity under near-physiological conditions. Although the present experimental preparations will specifically refer to the mouse retinal arterioles, this methodology can readily be employed to microvessels from rats.

Preparation Steps for Measurement of Reactivity in Mouse Retinal Arterioles Ex Vivo

Many vision-threatening ocular diseases are associated with dysfunctional retinal microvessels. Therefore, the measurement of retinal arteriole responses is important to investigate the underlying pathophysiological mechanisms. This article describes a detailed protocol for mouse retinal arteriole isolation and preparation to assess the effects of vasoactive substances on vascular diameter.

Vascular insufficiency and alterations in normal retinal perfusion are among the major factors for the pathogenesis of various sight-threatening ocular ...

Real-time Pressure-volume Analysis of Acute Myocardial Infarction in Mice

Acute myocardial infarction can lead to acute heart failure and cardiogenic shock. The evaluation of hemodynamics is critical for the evaluation of any potential therapeutic approach directed against acute left ventricular (LV) dysfunction. Current imaging modalities (e.g., echocardiography and magnetic resonance imaging) have several limitations since data on LV pressure cannot directly be measured. LV catheterization in mice undergoing coronary artery occlusion could serve as a novel method for a real-time evaluation of LV function.
At the beginning of the procedure, mice were anesthetized followed by endotracheal intubation. For LV catheterization, the right carotid artery was exposed via middle-neck incision. The catheter was introduced and placed into the LV cavity. Left thoracotomy was conducted and the left main coronary artery (LCA) was ligated. To induce reperfusion, the suture was released after 45 min. Pressure-volume data was recorded at all times.
Ligation of the LCA caused a decrease in LV systolic function as evidenced by a 30% reduction in stroke volume, LV ejection fraction (EF), and cardiac output. Maximum dP/dt as a parameter for LV contractility was also significantly reduced and diastolic function was severely impaired (minimum dP/dt -40%). Reperfusion over a period of 20 min did not lead to a complete recovery of LV function.
Real-time pressure-volume analysis served as a valid procedure for monitoring cardiac function during acute myocardial infarction in mice. Maintaining stable anesthesia and a standardized surgical approach was crucial to ensure valid results. As the early phase of acute myocardial infarction is critical for morbidity and mortality, the delineated method could be beneficial for preclinical evaluation of new strategies for cardioprotection.

Acute myocardial infarction in mice induces acute but incompletely characterized changes in left ventricular (LV) function. LV catheterization in mice undergoing coronary artery occlusion serves as a novel method for a real-time evaluation of LV function.

Acute myocardial infarction can lead to acute heart failure and cardiogenic shock. The evaluation of hemodynamics is critical for the evaluation of any ...

Echocardiographic Measurement of Right Ventricular Diastolic Parameters in Mouse

Diastolic dysfunction is a prominent feature of right ventricular (RV) remodeling associated with conditions of pressure overload. However, the RV diastolic function is rarely quantified in experimental studies. This might be due to technical difficulties in the visualization of the RV in the apical four-chamber view in rodents. Here we describe two positions facilitating the visualization of the apical four-chamber view in mice to assess the RV diastolic function.
The apical four-chamber view is enabled by tilting the mouse fixation platform to the left and caudally (LeCa) or to the right and cranially (RiCr). Both positions provide images of comparable quality. The results of the RV diastolic function obtained from two positions are not significantly different. Both positions are comparably easy to perform. This protocol can be incorporated into published protocols and enables detailed investigations of the RV function.

Here we describe and compare two positions for obtaining the apical four-chamber view in mice. These positions enable the quantification of the right ventricular function, provide comparable results, and can be used interchangeably.

Diastolic dysfunction is a prominent feature of right ventricular (RV) remodeling associated with conditions of pressure overload. However, the RV ...

Isometric Contractility Measurement of the Mouse Mesenteric Artery Using Wire Myography

The wire myograph technique is used to assess the contractility of vascular smooth muscles in response to depolarization, GPCR agonists/inhibitors and drugs. It is widely used in many studies on the physiological functions of vascular smooth muscle, the pathogenesis of vascular diseases such as hypertension, and the development of smooth muscle relaxant drugs. The mouse is a widely used model animal with a large pool of disease models and genetically modified strains. We introduced this method to measure the isometric contraction of mouse mesenteric artery in detail. A 1.4-mm segment of mouse mesenteric resistance artery was isolated and mounted on a myograph chamber by passing two steel wires through its lumen. After equilibration and normalization steps, the vessel segment was potentiated by a high-K+ solution twice prior to the contraction assay. As an example of the application of this method in drug development, we measured the relaxant effect of a novel natural substance, neoliensinine, isolated from a Chinese herb, embryos of the lotus seed (Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn.) on mouse mesenteric arteries. The vessel segments mounted on the myograph chamber were stimulated with a high-K+ solution. When the force tension reached a stable sustained phase, cumulative doses of neoliensinine were added to the chamber. We found that neoliensinine had a dose-dependent relaxant effect on smooth muscle contraction, thus suggesting that it bears potential activity against hypertension. In addition, as the vessel segment can survive at least 4 hours after mounting and maintain contractility induced by the high-K+ solution for many times, we suggest that the wire myograph system may be used for the time-consuming process of drug screening.

The wire myograph technique is used to investigate vascular smooth muscle functions and screen new drugs. We report a detailed protocol for measuring the isometric contractility of the mouse mesenteric artery and for screening new relaxants of vascular smooth muscle.

The wire myograph technique is used to assess the contractility of vascular smooth muscles in response to depolarization, GPCR agonists/inhibitors and ...

Biventricular Assessment of Cardiac Function and Pressure-Volume Loops by Closed-Chest Catheterization in Mice

Assessment of cardiac function is essential to conduct cardiovascular and pulmonary-vascular preclinical research. Pressure-volume loops (PV loops) generated by recording both pressure and volume during cardiac catheterization are vital when assessing both systolic and diastolic cardiac function. Left and right heart function are closely related, reflected in ventricular interdependence. Thus, recording biventricular function in the same animal is important to get a complete assessment of cardiac function. In this protocol, a closed chest approach to cardiac catheterization consistent with the way catheterization is performed in patients is adopted in mice. While challenging, the closed chest strategy is a more physiological approach, because opening the chest results in major changes in preload and afterload that create artifacts, most notably a fall in systemic blood pressure. While high-resolution echocardiography is used to assess rodents, cardiac catheterization is invaluable, particularly when assessing diastolic pressures in both ventricles.
Described here is a procedure to perform invasive, closed chest, sequential left and right ventricular pressure-volume (PV) loops in the same animal. PV loops are acquired using&#160;admittance technology with a mouse pressure-volume catheter and pressure-volume system acquisition. The procedure is described, beginning with the neck dissection, which is required to access the right jugular vein and the right carotid artery, to the insertion and positioning of the catheter, and finally the data acquisition. Then, the criteria required to ensure the acquisition of high-quality PV loops are discussed. Finally, the analysis of the left and right ventricular PV loops and the different hemodynamic parameters available to quantify systolic and diastolic ventricular function are briefly described.

Presented here is a protocol to assess biventricular heart function in mice by generating pressure-volume (PV) loops from the right and left ventricle in the same animal using closed chest catheterization. The focus is on the technical aspect of surgery and data acquisition.

Assessment of cardiac function is essential to conduct cardiovascular and pulmonary-vascular preclinical research. Pressure-volume loops (PV loops) ...

Cardiac Response to &#946;-Adrenergic Stimulation Determined by Pressure-Volume Loop Analysis

Determination of the cardiac function is a robust endpoint analysis in animal models of cardiovascular diseases in order to characterize effects of specific treatments on the heart. Due to the feasibility of genetic manipulations the mouse has become the most common mammalian animal model to study cardiac function and to search for new potential therapeutic targets. Here we describe a protocol to determine cardiac function&#160;in vivo using pressure-volume loop measurements and analysis during basal conditions and under &#946;-adrenergic stimulation by intravenous infusion of increasing concentrations of isoproterenol. We provide a refined protocol including ventilation support taking into account the positive end-expiratory pressure to ameliorate negative effects during open-chest measurements, and potent analgesia (Buprenorphine) to avoid uncontrollable myocardial stress evoked by pain during the procedure. All together the detailed description of the procedure and discussion about possible pitfalls enables highly standardized and reproducible pressure-volume loop analysis, reducing the exclusion of animals from the experimental cohort by preventing possible methodological bias.

Cardiac Response to &amp;#946;-Adrenergic Stimulation Determined by Pressure-Volume Loop Analysis

Here we describe a cardiac pressure-volume loop analysis under increasing doses of intravenously infused isoproterenol to determine the intrinsic cardiac function and the &#946;-adrenergic reserve in mice. We use a modified open-chest approach for the pressure-volume loop measurements, in which we include ventilation with positive end-expiratory pressure.

Determination of the cardiac function is a robust endpoint analysis in animal models of cardiovascular diseases in order to characterize effects of ...