The authors thank Ms. Jennifer M. Lommel and Tara N. Rognan for maintenance of Arabidopsis plants. This work was supported by start-up funds from Saint Louis University and National Institutes of Health grants 1R15GM086846-01 and 3R15GM086846-01S1 to W. Xiao.

I. Genetic Crossing
1. Emasculating the female parent
In order to distinguish the maternal and paternal alleles by using DNA sequence polymorphism, two different ecotypes, e.g. Columbia-0 (Col-0) and Ler, will be chosen as female and male parents. The plants should be young and healthy. One can emasculate the female parent by using a dissecting microscope, magnifying visor, or naked eye. Locate stage-12 flowers (Smyth et al., 1990) and remove any flowers or siliques above and below them by clipping the base of the pedicel with the scissors. Sterilize forceps by dipping the base of the tip gently into a beaker of 95% ethanol, which will remove any pollen grains on the forceps and kill the pollen as well. Gently pry apart the flower buds using forceps, and gently remove 4 sepals, 4 petals, and 6 stamens, leaving the pistil bare and intact. Try to avoid damage to the carpels during this process.
2. Picking the pollen donor and carrying out pollination
The best pollen donors are anthesed open flowers at the stage 14 with the petals extending at a 90 &deg; angle to the pistil (Smyth et al., 1990), in which a lot of pollen is shedding. Grab the flower at the base and just above the pedicel, which will cause the flower to spread open. Dust the stigma of the prepared pistil with the anther. After the pollination, the stigma will be covered with the yellow pollen, which can be easily observed under a microscope.
3. Labeling the cross
After pollinating all the emasculated pistils on a plant, we label the cross with a jewelry tag and information of female and male parents and date. Place a stake in the soil close to the plant, use a string to tie the stem of the inflorescence to the stake, and cover the pollinated pistils with a plastic bag.
II. Isolation of Endosperm Tissues in Arabidopsis
1. Preparing materials
We usually get necessary materials ready before harvesting the endosperm and embryo tissues: a liquid nitrogen tank, liquid nitrogen, a dissecting microscope, two new pairs of fine-tip forceps (5 INOX. FST by Dumont biology, Switzerland), microscope glass slides (3" X 1" X 1.0 mm), a pH 5.7 solution of 0.3 M sorbitol and 5 mM MES.
2. Collecting siliques
At 7- or 8-day-after-pollination (DAP), the seeds are ready to be harvested at the mid- to late torpedo stage of embryogenesis and dissected for endosperm and embryo. Sometimes, it might take 9-10 DAP if the emasculated flowers are too young.
3. Isolating endosperm and embryo
Since Arabidopsis seeds are tiny, we use a dissecting microscope to isolate endosperm and embryo. Put an 8-DAP silique under a microscope, use a pair of forceps to hold the silique pedicel and use the tip of another pair of forceps to slide open the silique in the margin where two carpels fuse. Use a pair of forceps to pick up one seed onto pH 5.7 solutions of 0.3 M sorbitol and 5 mM MES, make a small cut at the micropyle end to slide out embryo, squeeze the uncut end to push out endosperm and separate endosperm from seed coat (Kinoshita et al., 2004). Put the embryo and endosperm into separate microtubes in liquid nitrogen. Continue this until we accumulate embryo or endosperm from 10-15 siliques and then store the tube in a -80&deg;C freezer. In some cases, endosperm does not have to be separated from seed coat, i.e., one can isolate total RNA from the endosperm and seed coat mixture for gene imprinting analysis.
III. Bisulfite Sequencing
1. Required reagents
Cetyltrimethyl ammonium bromide (CTAB) for preparing genomic DNA, restriction enzymes, 3 M NaOH (Freshly made), 6.42 M urea/4 M sodium bisulfite (2 M sodium metabisulfite, Sigma-Aldrich, S9000, Na2S2O5, Molecular Weight: 190), 10 mM hydroquinone, a DNA purification kit (Promega Wizard DNA Clean-up System, Cat. # A7280), TE buffer, 6.3 M NaOH (freshly made), 10 M NH4OAc, 20 &mu;g/&mu;L tRNA, and 100% ethanol.
2. Details of the bisulfite treatment protocol
<ol>
	<li>Isolate genomic endosperm or embryo DNA using a CTAB procedure (Rogers and Bendich, 1988).</li>
	<li>Digest 100 ng - 2 &mu;g of genomic DNA in 20 &mu;L to 100 &mu;L total volume with restriction enzymes that cut outside the region to be analyzed. For the MEA promoter, we use XhoI, NdeI, and PstI or HindIII.</li>
	<li>Denature the restriction enzymes by boiling the DNA for five minutes and then quench on ice.</li>
	<li>Add 1/9 volume (2.2 &mu;L for 20 &mu;L digested DNA) of 3 M NaOH and incubate at 37 &deg;C for 15 minutes.</li>
	<li>Transfer the solution to a 250 &mu;L PCR tube.</li>
	<li>Dissolve 7.5 g of urea in 10 mL of sterile distilled water; Slowly add 7.6 g of sodium metabisulfite over 1-2 hours and heating usually helps dissolving; Adjust the pH to 5 with freshly made 10 M NaOH; Add sterile distilled water to a final volume to 20 mL. This is 6.24 M urea/4 M sodium bisulfite solution.</li>
	<li>Add 6.24 M urea/4 M sodium bisulfite solution to a final concentration of 5.36 M and 3.44 M, respectively (Paulin et al., 1998). For example, add 208 &mu;L of 6.42 M urea/4 M sodium bisulfite solution to the above 22.2 &mu;L of denatured genomic DNA (Xiao et al., 2003).</li>
	<li>Add 10 mM hydroquinone to the DNA at a final concentration of 0.5 mM (12 &mu;L for 20 &mu;L digestion).</li>
	<li>Conduct bisulfite treatment in a PCR machine: 30 cycles of 55 &deg;C for 15 minutes and 95 &deg;C for 30 seconds.</li>
	<li>Desalt the bisulfite treated DNA using the Wizard DNA Clean-Up System from Promega and follow up the protocol (Jacobsen et al., 2000).</li>
	<li>Measure the exact volume of TE recovered from the column after desalting and add 6.3 M NaOH to a final concentration of 0.3 M. Incubate at 37 &deg;C for 15 minutes.</li>
	<li>Add 10 M NH4OAc (pH 7.0) to a final concentration of 3 M, 2 &mu;L of 20 &mu;g/&mu;L tRNA, and 3 volumes of 100% ethanol and then mix. Centrifuge for 15 minutes at 14,000 rpm.</li>
	<li>Wash the pellet once with 70% ethanol, do a short centrifuge, and remove extra ethanol.</li>
	<li>Dry pellet in a speedvac for 5-10 minutes and resuspend in 25 - 100 &mu;L TE buffer depending on starting amount of DNA. The sodium bisulfite-treated DNA is now ready for PCR analysis.</li>
</ol>
3. PCR amplification
<ol>
	<li>Since unmethylated cytosines are converted to uracil, it is difficult to amplify a large fragment using the bisulfite-treated DNA as a template. Thus, we usually design primers to amplify a product no longer than 500 bp. To sequence the 4-kb MEA promoter, we designed many sets of primers and amplified 14 overlapping fragments to cover the entire region (Xiao et al., 2003). </li>
	<li>To sequence the top-strand, in designing a forward primer, I) choose a G (guanine)-rich region in order to have a higher annealing temperature without extra long nucleotides in the primers; II) change C (cytosine ) to Y (pyrimidine) at CG and CNG contexts and change the remaining C to T (thymine). In designing a reverse primer, I) choose a C-rich region; II) change G to R (purine) at CG and CNG contexts and change the remaining G to A (adenine). </li>
	<li>To sequence the bottom-strand, in designing a forward primer, I) choose a C-rich region; II) change G to R at CG and CNG contexts and change the remaining G to A. In designing a reverse primer, I) choose a G-rich region; II) change C to Y (pyrimidine) at CG and CNG contexts and change the remaining C to T. </li>
	<li>We usually use 1-2 &mu;L of the sodium bisulfite-treated DNA as a template for each PCR amplification (Xiao et al., 2003). The PCR product needs to be analyzed by gel electrophoresis to confirm the correct size of the fragment, then to be gel purified and cloned into the TOPO TA cloning vector pCR2.1 (Invitrogen) as an insert. A single colony is picked up and cultured; plasmid DNA extracted and sent for sequencing.</li>
</ol>
4. Sequence analysis
The principle of bisulfite sequencing is that unmethylated cytosine will be converted to uracil due to hydrolytic deamination by high concentration of sodium bisulfite at pH5.0 which will be amplified as thymine in PCR product; while 5-methyl cytosine will not be modified by sodium bisulfite and remain to be cytosine after PCR amplification (Clark et al., 1994; Frommer et al., 1992). After obtaining the sequencing result, we compare it with the strand-specific template that is used for PCR amplification. If a cytosine residue in the template reads as a thymine in the sequencing result, it indicates that the cytosine is not methylated. If a cytosine residue in the template remains a cytosine in the sequencing, it means that the cytosine is methylated.
IV. Representative Results
<img src="/files/ftp_upload/2327/2327fig1.jpg" alt="Figure 1 /" />Figure 1.

<ol>
	<li>Clark, S. J., Harrison, J., Paul, C. L., Frommer, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=High+sensitivity+mapping+of+methylated+cytosines.">High sensitivity mapping of methylated cytosines.</a> Nucleic Acids Res. 22, 2990-2997 (1994).</li><li>Cokus, S. J., Feng, S., Zhang, X., Chen, Z., Merriman, B., Haudenschild, C. D., Sriharsa Pradhan, S., Nelson, S. F., Pellegrini, M., Jacobsen, S. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Shotgun+bisulphite+sequencing+of+the+Arabidopsis+genome+reveals+DNA+methylation+patterning.">Shotgun bisulphite sequencing of the Arabidopsis genome reveals DNA methylation patterning.</a> Nature. 452, 215-219 (2008).</li><li>Frommer, M., McDonald, L. E., Millar, D. S., Collis, C. M., Watt, F., Grigg, G. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+genomic+sequencing+protocol+that+yields+a+positive+display+of+5-methylcytosine+residues+in+individual+DNA+strands.">A genomic sequencing protocol that yields a positive display of 5-methylcytosine residues in individual DNA strands.</a> Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 89, 1827-1831 (1992).</li><li>Gehring, M., Huh, J. H., Hsieh, T. F., Penterman, J., Choi, Y., Harada, J. J., Goldberg, R. B., Fischer, R. L. D. E. M. E. T. E. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=DNA+glycosylase+establishes+MEDEA+polycomb+gene+self-imprinting+by+allele-specific+demethylation.">DNA glycosylase establishes MEDEA polycomb gene self-imprinting by allele-specific demethylation.</a> Cell. 124, 495-506 (2006).</li><li>Henderson, I. R., Chan, S. R., Cao, X., Johnson, L., Jacobsen, S. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Accurate+sodium+bisulfite+sequencing+in+plants.">Accurate sodium bisulfite sequencing in plants.</a> Epigenetics. 5, 47-49 (2010).</li><li>Hsieh, T. F., Ibarra, C. A., Silva, P., Zemach, A., Eshed-Williams, L., Fischer, R. L., Zilberman, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Genome-wide+demethylation+of+Arabidopsis+endosperm.">Genome-wide demethylation of Arabidopsis endosperm.</a> Science. 324, 1451-1454 (2009).</li><li>Jacobsen, S. E., Sakai, H., Finnegan, E. J., Cao, X., Meyerowitz, E. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Ectopic+hypermethylation+of+flower-specific+genes+in+Arabidopsis.">Ectopic hypermethylation of flower-specific genes in Arabidopsis.</a> Curr. Biol. 10, 179-186 (2000).</li><li>Kinoshita, T., Miura, A., Choi, Y., Kinoshita, Y., Cao, X., Jacobsen, S. E., Fischer, R. L., Kakutani, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=One-way+control+of+FWA+imprinting+in+Arabidopsis+endosperm+by+DNA+methylation.">One-way control of FWA imprinting in Arabidopsis endosperm by DNA methylation.</a> Science. 303, 521-523 (2004).</li><li>Lister, R., O'Malley, R. C., Tonti-Filippini, J., Gregory, B. D., Berry, C. C., Millar, A. H., Ecker, J. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Highly+integrated+single-base+resolution+maps+of+the+epigenome+in+Arabidopsis.">Highly integrated single-base resolution maps of the epigenome in Arabidopsis.</a> Cell. 133, 523-536 (2008).</li><li>Lister, R., Pelizzola, M., Dowen, R. H., Hawkins, R. D., Hon, G., Tonti-Filippini, J., Nery, J. R., Lee, L., Ye, Z., Ngo, Q. -. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Human+DNA+methylomes+at+base+resolution+show+widespread+epigenomic+differences.">Human DNA methylomes at base resolution show widespread epigenomic differences.</a> Nature. 462, 315-322 (2009).</li><li>Paulin, R., Grigg, G. W., Davey, M. W., Piper, A. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Urea+improves+efficiency+of+bisulfite-mediated+sequencing+of+5'-+methylcytosine+in+genomic+DNA.">Urea improves efficiency of bisulfite-mediated sequencing of 5'- methylcytosine in genomic DNA.</a> Nucl. Acids Res. 26, 5009-5010 (1998).</li><li>Rogers, S. O., &amp;amp, B. e. n. d. i. c. h., J, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Extraction+of+DNA+from+plant+tissues.">Extraction of DNA from plant tissues.</a> Plant Molecular Biology Manual. A6, 1-10 (1988).</li><li>Smyth, D. R., Bowman, J. L., Elliot, M., Meyerowitz, E. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Early+Flower+Development+in+Arab&#237;dopsis.">Early Flower Development in Arab&#237;dopsis.</a> Plant Cell. 2, 755-767 (1990).</li><li>Xiao, W., Gehring, M., Choi, Y., Margossian, L., Pu, H., Harada, J. J., Goldberg, R. B., Pennell, R. I., Fischer, R. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Imprinting+of+the+MEA+Polycomb+gene+is+controlled+by+antagonism+between+MET1+methyltransferase+and+DME+glycosylase.">Imprinting of the MEA Polycomb gene is controlled by antagonism between MET1 methyltransferase and DME glycosylase.</a> Dev. Cell. 5, 891-901 (2003).</li></ol>

No conflicts of interest declared.

It is relatively easy to separate embryo from endosperm and seed coat, but it is tedious to separate endosperm from seed coat, especially for seed at early or mid-torpedo stage of embryogenesis. Since seed coat only contributes a very small amount of tissue, for some genes, e.g., MEA and FWA, we do not have to separate endosperm from seed coat. That means that we can isolate RNAs from a mixture of endosperm and seed coat tissues, check expression of the maternal and paternal alleles of a gene, compare w...

Supplies
<ul>
 <li>Dissecting Microscope</li>
 <li>Scissors</li>
 <li>Fine Tip Forceps</li>
 <li>Jewelry Tag</li>
 <li>Plant Stakes</li>
 <li>String or Twist-Ties</li>
 <li>4" X 2" X 8" Polyethylene Bags</li>
 <li>3" X 1" X 1.0 mm Microscope Slides</li>
 <li>Liquid Nitrogen</li>
 <li>Liquid Nitrogen Containers</li>
 <li>Heat Block</li>
 <li>PCR Tubes</li>
 <li>Thermocycler</li>
 <li>Microcentrifuge Tubes</li>
 <li>Microcentrifuge</li>
 <li>Gel Electrophoresis facility</li>
 <li>Arabidopsis thaliana Columbia-0 Plants</li>
 <li>Arabidopsis thaliana Landsberg erecta Plants</li>
</ul>
Reagents
<ul>
 <li>70% Ethanol</li>
 <li>95% Ethanol</li>
 <li>100% Ethanol</li>
 <li>0.3 M Sorbitol and 5 mM MES-pH 5.7</li>
 <li>Cetyltrimethyl Ammonium Bromide (CTAB)</li>
 <li>100% Ethanol</li>
 <li>Cholorform</li>
 <li>Restriction Enzymes</li>
 <li>3 M NaOH</li>
 <li>6.3 M NaOH</li>
 <li>6.24 M Urea/ 4 M Sodium Bisulfite</li>
 <li>Sterile distilled H2O</li>
 <li>10 mM Hydroquinone</li>
 <li>Wizard DNA Clean-Up System (Promega)</li>
 <li>10 M NH4OAc</li>
 <li>20 &mu;g/ &mu;L tRNA</li>
 <li>TE buffer</li>
 <li>The TOPO TA Cloning Kit (Invitrogen)</li>
</ul>

determination of dna methylation of imprinted genes in arabidopsis endosperm

Arabidopsis thaliana is an excellent model organism for studying epigenetic mechanisms. One of the reasons is the loss-of-function null mutant of DNA methyltransferases is viable, thus providing a system to study how loss of DNA methylation in a genome affects growth and development. Imprinting refers to differential expression of maternal and paternal alleles and plays an important role in reproduction development in both mammal and plants. DNA methylation is critical for determining whether the maternal or paternal alleles of an imprinted gene is expressed or silenced. In flowering plants, there is a double fertilization event in reproduction: one sperm cell fertilizes the egg cell to form embryo and a second sperm fuses with the central cell to give rise to endosperm. Endosperm is the tissue where imprinting occurs in plants. MEDEA, a SET domain Polycomb group gene, and FWA, a transcription factor regulating flowering, are the first two genes shown to be imprinted in endosperm and their expression is controlled by DNA methylation and demethylation in plants. In order to determine imprinting status of a gene and methylation pattern in endosperm, we need to be able to isolate endosperm first. Since seed is tiny in Arabidopsis, it remains challenging to isolate Arabidopsis endosperm and examine its methylation. In this video protocol, we report how to conduct a genetic cross, to isolate endosperm tissue from seeds, and to determine the methylation status by bisulfite sequencing.

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Determination of DNA Methylation of Imprinted Genes in Arabidopsis Endosperm at JoVE.com

Determination of DNA Methylation of Imprinted Genes in Arabidopsis Endosperm

Imprinting is a phenomenon in plant and mammal reproduction. DNA methylation plays an important role in mechanisms of imprinting. Isolating endosperm and determining methylation status of imprinted genes in Arabidopsis can be difficult. In this protocol, we describe how to isolate endosperm and determine methylation by bisulfite sequencing.

Determination of DNA Methylation of Imprinted Genes in Arabidopsis Endosperm

Arabidopsis thaliana is an excellent model organism for studying epigenetic mechanisms. One of the reasons is the loss-of-function null mutant of DNA ...

determination-dna-methylation-imprinted-genes-arabidopsis

Research

JoVE Journal

Biology

17.4K Views.  Saint Louis University. החתמה היא תופעה במפעל ורבייה יונק. מתילציה DNA ממלא תפקיד חשוב במנגנוני של הטבעה. האנדוספרם בידוד וקביעת מעמד מתילציה של גנים מוטבעים ארבידופסיס יכול להיות קשה. בפרוטוקול זה, אנו מתארים כיצד לבודד את האנדוספרם ולקבוע מתילציה של רצפי bisulfite.

Video: Determination of DNA Methylation of Imprinted Genes in Arabidopsis Endosperm

DNA Methylation: Bisulphite Modification and Analysis

Epigenetics describes the heritable changes in gene function that occur independently to the DNA sequence. The molecular basis of epigenetic gene regulation is complex, but essentially involves modifications to the DNA itself or the proteins with which DNA associates. The predominant epigenetic modification of DNA in mammalian genomes is methylation of cytosine nucleotides (5-MeC). DNA methylation provides instruction to gene expression machinery as to where and when the gene should be expressed. The primary target sequence for DNA methylation in mammals is 5'-CpG-3' dinucleotides (Figure 1). CpG dinucleotides are not uniformly distributed throughout the genome, but are concentrated in regions of repetitive genomic sequences and CpG "islands" commonly associated with gene promoters (Figure 1). DNA methylation patterns are established early in development, modulated during tissue specific differentiation and disrupted in many disease states including cancer. To understand the biological role of DNA methylation and its role in human disease, precise, efficient and reproducible methods are required to detect and quantify individual 5-MeCs.
This protocol for bisulphite conversion is the "gold standard" for DNA methylation analysis and facilitates identification and quantification of DNA methylation at single nucleotide resolution. The chemistry of cytosine deamination by sodium bisulphite involves three steps (Figure 2). (1) Sulphonation: The addition of bisulphite to the 5-6 double bond of cytosine (2) Hydrolic Deamination: hydrolytic deamination of the resulting cytosine-bisulphite derivative to give a uracil-bisulphite derivative (3) Alkali Desulphonation: Removal of the sulphonate group by an alkali treatment, to give uracil. Bisulphite preferentially deaminates cytosine to uracil in single stranded DNA, whereas 5-MeC, is refractory to bisulphite-mediated deamination. Upon PCR amplification, uracil is amplified as thymine while 5-MeC residues remain as cytosines, allowing methylated CpGs to be distinguished from unmethylated CpGs by presence of a cytosine "C" versus thymine "T" residue during sequencing.
DNA modification by bisulphite conversion is a well-established protocol that can be exploited for many methods of DNA methylation analysis. Since the detection of 5-MeC by bisulphite conversion was first demonstrated by Frommer et al.1 and Clark et al.2, methods based around bisulphite conversion of genomic DNA account for the majority of new data on DNA methylation. Different methods of post PCR analysis may be utilized, depending on the degree of specificity and resolution of methylation required. Cloning and sequencing is still the most readily available method that can give single nucleotide resolution for methylation across the DNA molecule.

The gold standard for DNA methylation analysis is genomic sequencing of bisulphite converted DNA. This method takes advantage of the increased sensitivity of cytosine compared with 5-methylcytosine (5-MeC) to bisulphite deamination under acidic conditions. Unmethylated cytosines can be distinguished from methylated cytosines after PCR amplification of the target genomic DNA.

Epigenetics describes the heritable changes in gene function that occur independently to the DNA sequence. The molecular basis of epigenetic gene ...

Chromosomics: Detection of Numerical and Structural Alterations in All 24 Human Chromosomes Simultaneously Using a Novel OctoChrome FISH Assay

Fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) is a technique that allows specific DNA sequences to be detected on metaphase or interphase chromosomes in cell nuclei1. The technique uses DNA probes with unique sequences that hybridize to whole chromosomes or specific chromosomal regions, and serves as a powerful adjunct to classic cytogenetics. For instance, many earlier studies reported the frequent detection of increased chromosome aberrations in leukemia patients related with benzene exposure, benzene-poisoning patients, and healthy workers exposed to benzene, using classic cytogenetic analysis2. Using FISH, leukemia-specific chromosomal alterations have been observed to be elevated in apparently healthy workers exposed to benzene3-6, indicating the critical roles of cytogentic changes in benzene-induced leukemogenesis. 
Generally, a single FISH assay examines only one or a few whole chromosomes or specific loci per slide, so multiple hybridizations need to be conducted on multiple slides to cover all of the human chromosomes. Spectral karyotyping (SKY) allows visualization of the whole genome simultaneously, but the requirement for special software and equipment limits its application7. Here, we describe a novel FISH assay, OctoChrome-FISH, which can be applied for Chromosomics, which we define here as the simultaneous analysis of all 24 human chromosomes on one slide in human studies, such as chromosome-wide aneuploidy study (CWAS)8. The basis of the method, marketed by Cytocell as the Chromoprobe Multiprobe System, is an OctoChrome device that is divided into 8 squares, each of which carries three different whole chromosome painting probes (Figure 1). Each of the three probes is directly labeled with a different colored fluorophore, green (FITC), red (Texas Red), and blue (Coumarin). The arrangement of chromosome combinations on the OctoChrome device has been designed to facilitate the identification of the non-random structural chromosome alterations (translocations) found in the most common leukemias and lymphomas, for instance t(9;22), t(15;17), t(8;21), t(14;18)9. Moreover, numerical changes (aneuploidy) in chromosomes can be detected concurrently. The corresponding template slide is also divided into 8 squares onto which metaphase spreads are bound (Figure 2), and is positioned over the OctoChrome device. The probes and target DNA are denatured at high-temperature and hybridized in a humid chamber, and then all 24 human chromosomes can be visualized simultaneously. 
OctoChrome FISH is a promising technique for the clinical diagnosis of leukemia and lymphoma and for detection of aneuploidies in all chromosomes. We have applied this new Chromosomic approach in a CWAS study of benzene-exposed Chinese workers8,10.

A novel fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) method that simultaneously examines both numerical and structural chromosome alterations, particularly the specific chromosomal translocations associated with leukemia and lymphoma, of all 24 human chromosomes on a single device in one hybridization, is described.

Fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) is a technique that allows specific DNA sequences to be detected on metaphase or interphase chromosomes in cell ...

A Seed Coat Bedding Assay to Genetically Explore In Vitro How the Endosperm Controls Seed Germination in Arabidopsis thaliana

The Arabidopsis endosperm consists of a single cell layer surrounding the mature embryo and playing an essential role to prevent the germination of dormant seeds or that of nondormant seeds irradiated by a far red (FR) light pulse. In order to further gain insight into the molecular genetic mechanisms underlying the germination repressive activity exerted by the endosperm, a &#34;seed coat bedding&#34; assay (SCBA) was devised. The SCBA is a dissection procedure physically separating seed coats and embryos from seeds, which allows monitoring the growth of embryos on an underlying layer of seed coats. Remarkably, the SCBA reconstitutes the germination repressive activities of the seed coat in the context of seed dormancy and FR-dependent control of seed germination. Since the SCBA allows the combinatorial use of dormant, nondormant and genetically modified seed coat and embryonic materials, the genetic pathways controlling germination and specifically operating in the endosperm and embryo can be dissected. Here we detail the procedure to assemble a SCBA.

A Seed Coat Bedding Assay to Genetically Explore In Vitro How the Endosperm Controls Seed Germination in Arabidopsis thaliana

We present the procedure to assemble a seed coat bedding assay (SCBA) from Arabidopsis thaliana seeds. The SCBA was shown to be a powerful tool to explore genetically and in vitro how the endosperm controls seed germination in dormant seeds and in response to light cues. The SCBA is in principle applicable under any situation where the endosperm is suspected to influence embryonic growth.

The Arabidopsis endosperm consists of a single cell layer surrounding the mature embryo and playing an essential role to prevent the germination of ...

Real-time Imaging of Single Engineered RNA Transcripts in Living Cells Using Ratiometric Bimolecular Beacons

The growing realization that both the temporal and spatial regulation of gene expression can have important consequences on cell function has led to the development of diverse techniques to visualize individual RNA transcripts in single living cells. One promising technique that has recently been described utilizes an oligonucleotide-based optical probe, ratiometric bimolecular beacon (RBMB), to detect RNA transcripts that were engineered to contain at least four tandem repeats of the RBMB target sequence in the 3&#8217;-untranslated region. RBMBs are specifically designed to emit a bright fluorescent signal upon hybridization to complementary RNA, but otherwise remain quenched. The use of a synthetic probe in this approach allows photostable, red-shifted, and highly emissive organic dyes to be used for imaging. Binding of multiple RBMBs to the engineered RNA transcripts results in discrete fluorescence spots when viewed under a wide-field fluorescent microscope. Consequently, the movement of individual RNA transcripts can be readily visualized in real-time by taking a time series of fluorescent images. Here we describe the preparation and purification of RBMBs, delivery into cells by microporation and live-cell imaging of single RNA transcripts.

Ratiometric bimolecular beacons (RBMBs) can be used to image single engineered RNA transcripts in living cells. Here, we describe the preparation and purification of RBMBs, delivery of RBMBs into cells by microporation and fluorescent imaging of single RNA transcripts in real-time.

The growing realization that both the temporal and spatial regulation of gene expression can have important consequences on cell function has led to the ...

In vitro Methylation Assay to Study Protein Arginine Methylation

Protein arginine methylation is one of the most abundant post-translational modifications in the nucleus. Protein arginine methylation can be identified and/or determined via proteomic approaches, and/or immunoblotting with methyl-arginine specific antibodies. However, these techniques sometimes can be misleading and often provide false positive results. Most importantly, these techniques cannot provide direct evidence in support of the PRMT substrate specificity. In vitro methylation assays, on the other hand, are useful biochemical assays, which are sensitive, and consistently reveal if the identified proteins are indeed PRMT substrates. A typical in vitro methylation assay includes purified, active PRMTs, purified substrate and a radioisotope labeled methyl donor (S-adenosyl-L-[methyl-3H] methionine). Here we describe a step-by-step protocol to isolate catalytically active PRMT1, a ubiquitously expressed PRMT family member. The methyl transferase activities of the purified PRMT1 were later tested on Ras-GTPase activating protein binding protein 1 (G3BP1), a known PRMT substrate, in the presence of S-adenosyl-L-[methyl-3H] methionine as the methyl donor. This protocol can be employed not only for establishing the methylation status of novel physiological PRMT1 substrates, but also for understanding the basic mechanism of protein arginine methylation.

In vitro Methylation Assay to Study Protein Arginine Methylation

Protein arginine methylation, catalyzed by a class of enzymes viz., protein arginine methyl transferases (PRMTs), is the process of enzymatic addition of methyl group(s) to arginines within proteins. The in vitro methylation assay is the most dependable tool for assessing the methylation status of known or novel PRMT substrates.

Protein arginine methylation is one of the most abundant post-translational modifications in the nucleus. Protein arginine methylation can be identified ...

Enhanced Reduced Representation Bisulfite Sequencing for Assessment of DNA Methylation at Base Pair Resolution

DNA methylation pattern mapping is heavily studied in normal and diseased tissues. A variety of methods have been established to interrogate the cytosine methylation patterns in cells. Reduced representation of whole genome bisulfite sequencing was developed to detect quantitative base pair resolution cytosine methylation patterns at GC-rich genomic loci. This is accomplished by combining the use of a restriction enzyme followed by bisulfite conversion. Enhanced Reduced Representation Bisulfite Sequencing (ERRBS) increases the biologically relevant genomic loci covered and has been used to profile cytosine methylation in DNA from human, mouse and other organisms. ERRBS initiates with restriction enzyme digestion of DNA to generate low molecular weight fragments for use in library preparation. These fragments are subjected to standard library construction for next generation sequencing. Bisulfite conversion of unmethylated cytosines prior to the final amplification step allows for quantitative base resolution of cytosine methylation levels in covered genomic loci. The protocol can be completed within four days. Despite low complexity in the first three bases sequenced, ERRBS libraries yield high quality data when using a designated sequencing control lane. Mapping and bioinformatics analysis is then performed and yields data that can be easily integrated with a variety of genome-wide platforms. ERRBS can utilize small input material quantities making it feasible to process human clinical samples and applicable in a range of research applications. The video produced demonstrates critical steps of the ERRBS protocol.

Enhanced Reduced Representation Bisulfite Sequencing is a method for the preparation of sequencing libraries for DNA methylation analysis based on restriction enzyme digestion combined with cytosine bisulfite conversion. This protocol requires 50 ng of starting material and yields base pair resolution data at GC-rich genomic regions.

DNA methylation pattern mapping is heavily studied in normal and diseased tissues. A variety of methods have been established to interrogate the cytosine ...

Correlating Gene-specific DNA Methylation Changes with Expression and Transcriptional Activity of Astrocytic KCNJ10 (Kir4.1)

DNA methylation serves to regulate gene expression through the covalent attachment of a methyl group onto the C5 position of a cytosine in a cytosine-guanine dinucleotide. While DNA methylation provides long-lasting and stable changes in gene expression, patterns and levels of DNA methylation are also subject to change based on a variety of signals and stimuli. As such, DNA methylation functions as a powerful and dynamic regulator of gene expression. The study of neuroepigenetics has revealed a variety of physiological and pathological states that are associated with both global and gene-specific changes in DNA methylation. Specifically, striking correlations between changes in gene expression and DNA methylation exist in neuropsychiatric and neurodegenerative disorders, during synaptic plasticity, and following CNS injury. However, as the field of neuroepigenetics continues to expand its understanding of the role of DNA methylation in CNS physiology, delineating causal relationships in regards to changes in gene expression and DNA methylation are essential. Moreover, in regards to the larger field of neuroscience, the presence of vast region and cell-specific differences requires techniques that address these variances when studying the transcriptome, proteome, and epigenome. Here we describe FACS sorting of cortical astrocytes that allows for subsequent examination of a both RNA transcription and DNA methylation. Furthermore, we detail a technique to examine DNA methylation, methylation sensitive high resolution melt analysis (MS-HRMA) as well as a luciferase promoter assay. Through the use of these combined techniques one is able to not only explore correlative changes between DNA methylation and gene expression, but also directly assess if changes in the DNA methylation status of a given gene region are sufficient to affect transcriptional activity.

Correlating Gene-specific DNA Methylation Changes with Expression and Transcriptional Activity of Astrocytic KCNJ10 Kir4.1

DNA methylation is capable of maintaining stable levels of gene expression as well as allowing for dynamic changes in gene expression in response to a variety of stimuli. We detail techniques that allow the study of gene-specific changes in DNA methylation and the effect of these changes on gene expression.

DNA methylation serves to regulate gene expression through the covalent attachment of a methyl group onto the C5 position of a cytosine in a ...

Targeted DNA Methylation Analysis by Next-generation Sequencing

The role of epigenetic processes in the control of gene expression has been known for a number of years. DNA methylation at cytosine residues is of particular interest for epigenetic studies as it has been demonstrated to be both a long lasting and a dynamic regulator of gene expression. Efforts to examine epigenetic changes in health and disease have been hindered by the lack of high-throughput, quantitatively accurate methods. With the advent and popularization of next-generation sequencing (NGS) technologies, these tools are now being applied to epigenomics in addition to existing genomic and transcriptomic methodologies. For epigenetic investigations of cytosine methylation where regions of interest, such as specific gene promoters or CpG islands, have been identified and there is a need to examine significant numbers of samples with high quantitative accuracy, we have developed a method called Bisulfite Amplicon Sequencing (BSAS). This method combines bisulfite conversion with targeted amplification of regions of interest, transposome-mediated library construction and benchtop NGS. BSAS offers a rapid and efficient method for analysis of up to 10 kb of targeted regions in up to 96 samples at a time that can be performed by most research groups with basic molecular biology skills. The results provide absolute quantitation of cytosine methylation with base specificity. BSAS can be applied to any genomic region from any DNA source. This method is useful for hypothesis testing studies of target regions of interest as well as confirmation of regions identified in genome-wide methylation analyses such as whole genome bisulfite sequencing, reduced representation bisulfite sequencing, and methylated DNA immunoprecipitation sequencing.

Bisulfite amplicon sequencing (BSAS) is a method for quantifying cytosine methylation in targeted genomic regions of interest. This method uses bisulfite conversion paired with PCR amplification of target regions prior to next-generation sequencing to produce absolute quantitation of DNA methylation at a base-specific level.

The role of epigenetic processes in the control of gene expression has been known for a number of years. DNA methylation at cytosine residues is of ...

Chromatin Immunoprecipitation Assay for the Identification of Arabidopsis Protein-DNA Interactions In Vivo

Intricate gene regulatory networks orchestrate biological processes and developmental transitions in plants. Selective transcriptional activation and silencing of genes mediate the response of plants to environmental signals and developmental cues. Therefore, insights into the mechanisms that control plant gene expression are essential to gain a deep understanding of how biological processes are regulated in plants. The chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) technique described here is a procedure to identify the DNA-binding sites of proteins in genes or genomic regions of the model species Arabidopsis thaliana. The interactions with DNA of proteins of interest such as transcription factors, chromatin proteins or posttranslationally modified versions of histones can be efficiently analyzed with the ChIP protocol. This method is based on the fixation of protein-DNA interactions in vivo, random fragmentation of chromatin, immunoprecipitation of protein-DNA complexes with specific antibodies, and quantification of the DNA associated with the protein of interest by PCR techniques. The use of this methodology in Arabidopsis has contributed significantly to unveil transcriptional regulatory mechanisms that control a variety of plant biological processes. This approach allowed the identification of the binding sites of the Arabidopsis chromatin protein EBS to regulatory regions of the master gene of flowering FT. The impact of this protein in the accumulation of particular histone marks in the genomic region of FT was also revealed through ChIP analysis.

Chromatin Immunoprecipitation Assay for the Identification of Arabidopsis Protein-DNA Interactions In Vivo

Chromatin immunoprecipitation is a powerful technique for the identification of DNA binding sites of Arabidopsis proteins in vivo. This procedure includes chromatin cross-linking and fragmentation, immunoprecipitation with selective antibodies against the protein of interest, and qPCR analysis of bound DNA. We describe a simple ChIP assay optimized for Arabidopsis plants.

Intricate gene regulatory networks orchestrate biological processes and developmental transitions in plants. Selective transcriptional activation and ...

High Resolution Quantification of Crystalline Cellulose Accumulation in Arabidopsis Roots to Monitor Tissue-specific Cell Wall Modifications

Plant cells are surrounded by a cell wall, the composition of which determines their final size and shape. The cell wall is composed of a complex matrix containing polysaccharides that include cellulose microfibrils that form both crystalline structures and cellulose chains of amorphous organization. The orientation of the cellulose fibers and their concentrations dictate the mechanical properties of the cell. Several methods are used to determine the levels of crystalline cellulose, each bringing both advantages and limitations. Some can distinguish the proportion of crystalline regions within the total cellulose. However, they are limited to whole-organ analyses that are deficient in spatiotemporal information. Others relying on live imaging, are limited by the use of imprecise dyes. Here, we report a sensitive polarized light-based system for specific quantification of relative light retardance, representing crystalline cellulose accumulation in cross sections of Arabidopsis thaliana roots. In this method, the cellular resolution and anatomical data are maintained, enabling direct comparisons between the different tissues composing the growing root. This approach opens a new analytical dimension, shedding light on the link between cell wall composition, cellular behavior and whole-organ growth.

High Resolution Quantification of Crystalline Cellulose Accumulation in Arabidopsis Roots to Monitor Tissue-specific Cell Wall Modifications

Crystalline cellulose is an important constituent of the plant cell wall. However, its quantification at a cellular resolution is technically challenging. Here, we report the use of polarized light technology and root cross sections to obtain information of cell wall composition at a spatiotemporal resolution.

Plant cells are surrounded by a cell wall, the composition of which determines their final size and shape. The cell wall is composed of a complex matrix ...