We acknowledge funding support from CPRIT (RP100119) and the Welch Foundation (I-1665).

Entire protocol takes approximately 4 days.
1. Preparation of Cells for siRNA and Reporter Transfection
We will introduce here a protocol for interrogating siRNA libraries using a small set of siRNAs (384 different siRNA pools array in 96 well format with each pool consisting of 4x siRNAs targeting a single gene) from a genome-wide siRNA library for illustrative purposes. For this particular study, we will exploit HCT116 cells that exhibit deviant Wnt and Kras signaling, and p53 activity. The appropriate cell line in studies aimed at interrogating other cellular processes of interest will have to be identified and evaluated in a similar fashion.
<ol>
	<li>Wash 5 x 10 cm2 plates of 80-90% confluent HCT116 cells with PBS then harvest cells by trypsinization using 1 ml of trypsinization solution/plate followed by neutralization with 10 ml of Dulbecco's modified eagle medium (DMEM) containing 2% fetal bovine serum (FBS) and 1% penicillin/streptomycin/plate.</li>
	<li>Transfer suspended cells to a 50 ml conical tube and centrifugate at ~130 x g for 5 min, remove supernatant, and re-suspend cell pellet in 10 ml of DMEM/ 2%FBS/ 1% penicillin/streptomycin.</li>
	<li>Count the cell number with a cell counter, and then make a cell solution with 105 cells/ml, keep 150 ml cell suspension for the next step. Plate 104 cells (100 &mu;l) in each well of a 96 well cell culture plate using a Multidrop automated liquid dispenser (henceforth Multidrop). The cell suspension should be sufficient in this case for plating 12 x 96 well plates.</li>
	<li>Incubate the plates with cells at 37 &deg;C in an incubator with 5% CO2 while preparing the transfection mixture.</li>
</ol>
2. Preparing the Reporter Construct Stock Solution
<ol>
	<li>Isolate high-quality reporter construct DNA using standard midiprep kits (NucleoBond Xtra Midi produced by Clontech) and dilute the DNA to a final concentration of 1 mg/ml for each reporter.</li>
	<li>Prepare 100 &mu;l of reporter construct stock solution by combining 30 &mu;l of p53-FL, 30 &mu;l of 8X TCF-RL, 30 &mu;l of Elk1-Gal4, 6 &mu;l UAS-CL and 4 &mu;l of H2O to achieve a DNA mix with a final 1:1:1:0.2 ratio of the reporters. Final DNA concentration of this DNA mix stock solution is 0.3 mg/ml.</li>
</ol>
3. Preparing the siRNA/DNA Transfection Mix
In this part of the protocol, we will prepare siRNA/DNA transfection mixes that will be sufficient for transfecting 12 x 96 well plates. For this test library of 4 x 96 well plate of siRNAs, we will transfect each siRNA pool in triplicate. The transfection reagent we will use is called Effectene (Qiagen). In our hands this is the only reagent that works for the simultaneous delivery of siRNA and DNA into cultured cells.
<ol>
	<li>Dilute 80 &mu;l of reporter construct stock solution in 8 ml of EC buffer (Effectene Kit) to achieve a DNA solution with a final concentration of 3 &mu;g/ml. In general, prepare enough DNA solution mix for immediate use.</li>
	<li>Plate 20 &mu;l of this DNA solution to each well of a 96 well/plate. The number of 96 well plates will depend on how many siRNA pools will be tested. For example, in this case we will need 4 x 96 well plates to evaluate 384 different siRNA pools.</li>
	<li>The siRNAs to be tested should be at a stock concentration of 5 &mu;M. If not, they can be replica plated and diluted to this concentration using the recommended dilution buffer associated with each library.</li>
	<li>Transfer 2 &mu;l of each 5 &mu;M siRNA stock to the corresponding well of the PCR plate containing the diluted DNA stock with a Biomek Automated Liquid Handler. Depending on the scale of the study, a multi-channel pipettor may suffice.</li>
	<li>Now, we will add 1 &mu;l of Enhancer solution (Effectene kit) to each well of the DNA/siRNA plate. This again can be accomplished either with an automated liquid handler or multichannel pipettor.</li>
	<li>Allow the Enhancer reaction to occur at RT for 5 min then add 3 &mu;l of Effectene transfection reagent to each well and incubate at RT for an additional 10 min.</li>
	<li>To stop transfection complex formation, add 10 &mu;l of DMEM/ 2% FBS/ 1% penicillin/streptomycin to each well of the PCR plate.</li>
	<li>Transfer 10 &mu;l of the transfection mix to each well of the 96 well plate containing the cells (retrieved from the cell incubator). As each transfection will be performed in triplicate, the same mix will be applied to two additional 96 well plates containing cells.</li>
	<li>Incubate the cells with transfection mixtures added at 37 &deg;C in a humidified environment with 5% CO2 for 36 hr.</li>
</ol>
4. Determine Luciferase Activities from Cell Samples
After 36 hr, luciferase activities are ready for measurement in transfected cells. The endpoint should be determined on a per-experiment basis. In our study, a 36 hr incubation time had previously yielded a sufficiently robust signal for meaning outcome determination. As this study incorporates multiple reporters (one secreted into the culture medium, and two others expressed in the cell cytoplasm), we will obtain measurements from both culture medium as well as a cellular lysate.
<ol>
	<li>Detection of CL activity in the culture medium:
	<ol>
		<li>20 &mu;l of culture medium is replica-plated in a white opaque 96 well plate (either using the Biomek Liquid Handler or multichannel pipettor).</li>
		<li>Add 20 &mu;l of CL assay buffer (Targeting Systems) to each well.</li>
		<li>Add 10 &mu;l of Cypridina luciferin substrate (Targeting Systems) to each well and detect CL activity using a luminometer (the Pherastar plate reader produced by BMG for example).</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Detection of FL and RL activity:
	<ol>
		<li>Lyse the cells by first removing the culture medium. This can be accomplished rapidly by turning plate upside down and tossing medium in a sink. Remaining medium can be removed by gently tapping the upside down plate on paper towels. Add 30 &mu;l of 1X Passive Lysis Buffer (Promega) to each well of cells using the Multidrop and place on a platform rocker (Bellco is one company that makes these) set a medium speed for 5 min at the RT.</li>
		<li>Add 20 &mu;l of the Luciferase Assay Reagent II (part of the Promega Dual Luciferase Kit) using the Multidrop and immediately measure FL activity using the luminometer. Next, add Stop &amp; Glo Reagent (Promega) that will quench the FL activity and allow measurement of RL activity. Note: unless you are using substrate mixes that allow extended signal duration (such as Dual-Glo Luciferase Kits from Promega), the use of flash kits requires rapid measurement upon substrate addition (within 5 min).</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>

<ol>
	<li>Bronstein, I., Fortin, J., Stanley, P. E., Stewart, G. S., Kricka, L. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Chemiluminescent+and+bioluminescent+reporter+gene+assays.">Chemiluminescent and bioluminescent reporter gene assays.</a> Analytical Biochemistry. 219, 169-181 (1994).</li><li>Miraglia, L. J., King, F. J., Damoiseaux, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Seeing+the+light:+luminescent+reporter+gene+assays.">Seeing the light: luminescent reporter gene assays.</a> Combinatorial Chemistry &amp; High Throughput Screening. 14, 648-657 (2011).</li><li>McGuire, S. E., Roman, G., Davis, R. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Gene+expression+systems+in+Drosophila:+a+synthesis+of+time+and+space.">Gene expression systems in Drosophila: a synthesis of time and space.</a> Trends in Genetics: TIG. 20, 384-391 (2004).</li><li>Smirnova, N. A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Development+of+Neh2-luciferase+reporter+and+its+application+for+high+throughput+screening+and+real-time+monitoring+of+Nrf2+activators.">Development of Neh2-luciferase reporter and its application for high throughput screening and real-time monitoring of Nrf2 activators.</a> Chem. Biol. 18, 752-765 (2011).</li><li>Chen, B., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Small+molecule-mediated+disruption+of+Wnt-dependent+signaling+in+tissue+regeneration+and+cancer.">Small molecule-mediated disruption of Wnt-dependent signaling in tissue regeneration and cancer.</a> Nat. Chem. Biol. 5, 100-107 (2009).</li><li>Tang, W., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+genome-wide+RNAi+screen+for+Wnt/beta-catenin+pathway+components+identifies+unexpected+roles+for+TCF+transcription+factors+in+cancer.">A genome-wide RNAi screen for Wnt/beta-catenin pathway components identifies unexpected roles for TCF transcription factors in cancer.</a> Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 105, 9697-9702 (2008).</li><li>Lum, L. D., Kulak, O. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Multiplexed+Luciferase+Reporter+Assay+Systems.">Multiplexed Luciferase Reporter Assay Systems.</a> United States patent. , (2012).</li><li>Funk, W. D., Pak, D. T., Karas, R. H., Wright, W. E., Shay, J. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+transcriptionally+active+DNA-binding+site+for+human+p53+protein+complexes.">A transcriptionally active DNA-binding site for human p53 protein complexes.</a> Mol. Cell Biol. 12, 2866-2871 (1992).</li><li>DasGupta, R., Kaykas, A., Moon, R. T., Perrimon, N. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Functional+genomic+analysis+of+the+Wnt-wingless+signaling+pathway.">Functional genomic analysis of the Wnt-wingless signaling pathway.</a> Science. 308, 826-833 (2005).</li><li>Korinek, V., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Depletion+of+epithelial+stem-cell+compartments+in+the+small+intestine+of+mice+lacking+Tcf-4.">Depletion of epithelial stem-cell compartments in the small intestine of mice lacking Tcf-4.</a> Nat. Genet. 19, 379-383 (1998).</li><li>Korinek, V., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Two+members+of+the+Tcf+family+implicated+in+Wnt/beta-catenin+signaling+during+embryogenesis+in+the+mouse.">Two members of the Tcf family implicated in Wnt/beta-catenin signaling during embryogenesis in the mouse.</a> Mol. Cell Biol. 18, 1248-1256 (1998).</li><li>. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Comprehensive+molecular+characterization+of+human+colon+and+rectal+cancer.">Comprehensive molecular characterization of human colon and rectal cancer.</a> Nature. 487, 330-337 (2012).</li><li>Koboldt, D. C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Comprehensive+molecular+portraits+of+human+breast+tumours.">Comprehensive molecular portraits of human breast tumours.</a> Nature. , (2012).</li><li>Wood, L. D., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+genomic+landscapes+of+human+breast+and+colorectal+cancers.">The genomic landscapes of human breast and colorectal cancers.</a> Science. 318, 1108-1113 (2007).</li><li>Berndt, J. D., Biechele, T. L., Moon, R. T., Major, M. B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Integrative+analysis+of+genome-wide+RNA+interference+screens.">Integrative analysis of genome-wide RNA interference screens.</a> Science Signaling. 2, pt4 (2009).</li><li>Falschlehner, C., Steinbrink, S., Erdmann, G., Boutros, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=High-throughput+RNAi+screening+to+dissect+cellular+pathways:+a+how-to+guide.">High-throughput RNAi screening to dissect cellular pathways: a how-to guide.</a> Biotechnology Journal. 5, 368-376 (2010).</li><li>Boutros, M., Bras, L. P., Huber, W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Analysis+of+cell-based+RNAi+screens.">Analysis of cell-based RNAi screens.</a> Genome Biology. 7, R66 (2006).</li><li>Gilbert, D. F., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+novel+multiplex+cell+viability+assay+for+high-throughput+RNAi+screening.">A novel multiplex cell viability assay for high-throughput RNAi screening.</a> PLoS ONE. 6, e28338 (2011).</li></ol>

O.K. and L.L are authors on a pending patent relating to multiplexed luciferase technology.

There are several purveyors of luciferase-based reporter systems (such as Promega, Targeting Systems, New England BIolabs, and Thermo Fisher) that provide useful on-line resources for those entertaining a high-throughput screen for the first time. In addition, a number of excellent reviews regarding optimizing the use of high-throughput screens for gene discovery and how RNAi-based screening results can be integrated with other -omics-based datasets should be helpful15,16. Methods for the selection of "hits" f...

A variety of luciferase-based reporters for monitoring a diverse array of cell biological processes are commercially available. The majority of these DNA constructs encode luciferase proteins that are induced to express by specific cell stimuli or perturbations. The most robust transcriptionally based reporters place the expression of a luciferase enzyme under the control of synthetic enhancer elements or gene promoter regions well-established for their reliability in reporting a physiologically relevant transcriptional event1,2. There are also trans-reporter luciferase systems that utilize GAL4-UAS to drive luciferase protein expression. Gal4 is a yeast transcriptional activator and the UAS is an enhancer to which Gal4 specifically binds to activate the transcription of gene sequences placed down-stream of it3. These types of luciferase systems are typically supported by two DNA plasmids - one encodes the GAL4 protein fused to the regulatory portion of a protein of interest, and the second encodes a luciferase protein placed under the control of one or more UAS sequences. Thus, the cellular luciferase signal reflects the activity level of the protein of interest. Another common use of luciferase-based reporters is for monitoring protein stability whereby a protein of interest is fused to a luciferase enzyme4. Regardless of the type of reporter, a caveat emptor is noted here as one cannot assume the specificity of any reporter to have been well interrogated. Thus, due diligence is required in the incorporation of new reporter constructs in any research strategy.
The selection of the luciferase enzyme read-out can be as important as the reliability of the DNA elements that control its expression. Whereas firefly luciferase (FL) is the most commonly used enzyme in commercially available constructs, the advent of new luciferase reporter systems that do not require ATP (as in the case of FL-based reactions) or that incorporate more stable enzymes that emit stronger signals promise to improve the efficiency and reliability of this research platform. An important note regarding the selection of luciferase reporters in chemical studies is the susceptibility of FL to chemical inhibition that could give rise to false reports. In our experience, other enzymes such as Renilla or Gaussia luciferase (RL and GL, respectively) that utilize coelenterazine as a substrate are less readily inhibited by small molecules5.
The most common format for multiplexing luciferase read-outs entails the use of FL and RL largely given the availability of easy-to-use kits with the ability to sequentially measure enzymatic activities from a single sample. In most kits, samples are first exposed to luciferin to reveal levels of FL activity followed by a quenching reagent that is simultaneously deposited with coelenterazine to yield a secondary RL signal. With the addition of other luciferases that can be secreted such as GL or that use yet another substrate such as Cypridina luciferase (CL), a greater number of possibilities for generating high content data using luciferases have emerged. An example of a genome-wide RNAi screen using this technique can be found here6. These technological advances have in turn spurred the development of specific mechanisms to quench each type of luciferase enzyme in order to limit cross-talk7. In our hands, we note a greater frequency of "edge effects" (inexplicable trends in cellular activity associated with the edge of high titer culture plates), with secreted luciferases such as GL or CL. On the other hand, such secreted luciferases are useful for kinetic assays as they enable signal sampling without adulterating cell viability.
For our study presented here, we will simultaneously monitor the activity of three cancer-relevant cellular processes: the p53, Kras, and Wnt signal transduction pathways. The reporters incorporated in our study are the pp53-TA-Luc FL reporter from Clontech (henceforth referred to as the p53-FL reporter)8, an Elk1-GAL4/UAS-CL reporter system (henceforth Elk-1 reporter; Agilent), and the 8X TCF RL reporter that incorporates multiple synthetic enhancer elements recognized by the Wnt pathway transcriptional regulators known as T-cell factors (or TCFs)9-11.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
			<td>REAGENTS</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PathDetect Elk1 Trans-Reporting System</td>
			<td>Agilent Technologies Inc.</td>
			<td>219005</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Pathway Profiling Luciferase System 4 pp53-TA-Luc Vector</td>
			<td>Clontech Lab Inc.</td>
			<td>631914</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Effectene Transfection Reagent</td>
			<td>Qiagen Inc.</td>
			<td>301427</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dual-Luciferase Reporter Assay System</td>
			<td>Promega Corp.</td>
			<td>E1960</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cypridina Luciferase Assay reagent</td>
			<td>Targeting Systems</td>
			<td>VLAR-1</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>HCT116 cells</td>
			<td>ATCC</td>
			<td>CCL-247</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>CytoTox-Fluo Cytotoxicity Assay</td>
			<td>Promega Corp.</td>
			<td>G9260</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
			<td>EQUIPMENT</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MultiFlo Microplate Dispenser</td>
			<td>Labsystems Inc.</td>
			<td>Model 832</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Biomek FXP Laboratory Automation Workstation</td>
			<td>Beckman Coulter Inc.</td>
			<td>A31842</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PHERAstar FS-multi-mode HTS microplate reader</td>
			<td>BMG Labtech Inc.</td>
			<td>0471-101A</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Bright-Line Reichert Hemacytometers</td>
			<td>Hausser Scientific Company</td>
			<td>1490</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

a multiplexed luciferase-based screening platform for interrogating cancer-associated signal transduction in cultured cells

Genome-scale interrogation of gene function using RNA interference (RNAi) holds tremendous promise for the rapid identification of chemically tractable cancer cell vulnerabilities. Limiting the potential of this technology is the inability to rapidly delineate the mechanistic basis of phenotypic outcomes and thus inform the development of molecularly targeted therapeutic strategies. We outline here methods to deconstruct cellular phenotypes induced by RNAi-mediated gene targeting using multiplexed reporter systems that allow monitoring of key cancer cell-associated processes. This high-content screening methodology is versatile and can be readily adapted for the screening of other types of large molecular libraries.

Despite advances in mapping the mutational landscape of various cancers using massive genome sequencing efforts12-14, we still do not have in place a systematic approach for translating these observations into intervention strategies. In colorectal cancer (CRC), mutations that are predicted to affect components of three cellular processes - Wnt/&beta;-catenin, p53, and Kras signaling - are found in 99% of all tumors suggesting they are key drivers of cellular transformation in the gut13. Thus, cance...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about A Multiplexed Luciferase-based Screening Platform for Interrogating Cancer-associated Signal Transduction in Cultured Cells at JoVE.com

A Multiplexed Luciferase-based Screening Platform for Interrogating Cancer-associated Signal Transduction in Cultured Cells

Achieving a systems level understanding of cellular processes is a goal of modern-day cell biology. We describe here strategies for multiplexing luciferase reporters of various cellular function end-points to interrogate gene function using genome-scale RNAi libraries.

Genome-scale interrogation of gene function using RNA interference (RNAi)  holds tremendous promise for the rapid identification of chemically tractable  ...

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11.0K Views.  UT Southwestern Medical Center. השגת הבנה ברמת מערכות של תהליכים תאיים היא מטרה של ביולוגיה של התא המודרנית. אנו מתארים כאן אסטרטגיות לכתבי לוציפראז ריבוב של תפקוד תאי שונים נקודות קצה לחקור את תפקוד גן באמצעות הגנום בקנה מידה ספריות RNAi.

Video: A Multiplexed Luciferase-based Screening Platform for Interrogating Cancer-associated Signal Transduction in Cultured Cells

How to Measure Cortical Folding from MR Images: a Step-by-Step Tutorial to Compute Local Gyrification Index

Cortical folding (gyrification) is determined during the first months of life, so that adverse events occurring during this period leave traces that will be identifiable at any age. As recently reviewed by Mangin and colleagues2, several methods exist to quantify different characteristics of gyrification. For instance, sulcal morphometry can be used to measure shape descriptors such as the depth, length or indices of inter-hemispheric asymmetry3. These geometrical properties have the advantage of being easy to interpret. However, sulcal morphometry tightly relies on the accurate identification of a given set of sulci and hence provides a fragmented description of gyrification. A more fine-grained quantification of gyrification can be achieved with curvature-based measurements, where smoothed absolute mean curvature is typically computed at thousands of points over the cortical surface4. The curvature is however not straightforward to comprehend, as it remains unclear if there is any direct relationship between the curvedness and a biologically meaningful correlate such as cortical volume or surface. To address the diverse issues raised by the measurement of cortical folding, we previously developed an algorithm to quantify local gyrification with an exquisite spatial resolution and of simple interpretation. Our method is inspired of the Gyrification Index5, a method originally used in comparative neuroanatomy to evaluate the cortical folding differences across species. In our implementation, which we name local Gyrification Index (lGI1), we measure the amount of cortex buried within the sulcal folds as compared with the amount of visible cortex in circular regions of interest. Given that the cortex grows primarily through radial expansion6, our method was specifically designed to identify early defects of cortical development.
In this article, we detail the computation of local Gyrification Index, which is now freely distributed as a part of the FreeSurfer Software (<a href="http://surfer.nmr.mgh.harvard.edu/">http://surfer.nmr.mgh.harvard.edu/</a>, Martinos Center for Biomedical Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital). FreeSurfer provides a set of automated reconstruction tools of the brain's cortical surface from structural MRI data. The cortical surface extracted in the native space of the images with sub-millimeter accuracy is then further used for the creation of an outer surface, which will serve as a basis for the lGI calculation. A circular region of interest is then delineated on the outer surface, and its corresponding region of interest on the cortical surface is identified using a matching algorithm as described in our validation study1. This process is repeatedly iterated with largely overlapping regions of interest, resulting in cortical maps of gyrification for subsequent statistical comparisons (Fig. 1). Of note, another measurement of local gyrification with a similar inspiration was proposed by Toro and colleagues7, where the folding index at each point is computed as the ratio of the cortical area contained in a sphere divided by the area of a disc with the same radius. The two implementations differ in that the one by Toro et al. is based on Euclidian distances and thus considers discontinuous patches of cortical area, whereas ours uses a strict geodesic algorithm and include only the continuous patch of cortical area opening at the brain surface in a circular region of interest.

Measuring gyrification (cortical folding) at any age represents a window into early brain development. Hence, we previously developed an algorithm to measure local gyrification at thousands of points over the hemisphere1. In this paper, we detail the computation of this local gyrification index.

Cortical folding (gyrification) is determined during the first months of life, so that adverse events occurring during this period leave traces that will ...

High Content Screening in Neurodegenerative Diseases

The functional annotation of genomes, construction of molecular networks and novel drug target identification, are important challenges that need to be addressed as a matter of great urgency1-4. Multiple complementary 'omics' approaches have provided clues as to the genetic risk factors and pathogenic mechanisms underlying numerous neurodegenerative diseases, but most findings still require functional validation5. For example, a recent genome wide association study for Parkinson's Disease (PD), identified many new loci as risk factors for the disease, but the underlying causative variant(s) or pathogenic mechanism is not known6, 7. As each associated region can contain several genes, the functional evaluation of each of the genes on phenotypes associated with the disease, using traditional cell biology techniques would take too long. 
	There is also a need to understand the molecular networks that link genetic mutations to the phenotypes they cause. It is expected that disease phenotypes are the result of multiple interactions that have been disrupted. Reconstruction of these networks using traditional molecular methods would be time consuming. Moreover, network predictions from independent studies of individual components, the reductionism approach, will probably underestimate the network complexity8. This underestimation could, in part, explain the low success rate of drug approval due to undesirable or toxic side effects. Gaining a network perspective of disease related pathways using HT/HC cellular screening approaches, and identifying key nodes within these pathways, could lead to the identification of targets that are more suited for therapeutic intervention.
	High-throughput screening (HTS) is an ideal methodology to address these issues9-12. but traditional methods were one dimensional whole-well cell assays, that used simplistic readouts for complex biological processes. They were unable to simultaneously quantify the many phenotypes observed in neurodegenerative diseases such as axonal transport deficits or alterations in morphology properties13, 14. This approach could not be used to investigate the dynamic nature of cellular processes or pathogenic events that occur in a subset of cells. To quantify such features one has to move to multi-dimensional phenotypes termed high-content screening (HCS)4, 15-17. HCS is the cell-based quantification of several processes simultaneously, which provides a more detailed representation of the cellular response to various perturbations compared to HTS. 
	HCS has many advantages over HTS18, 19, but conducting a high-throughput (HT)-high-content (HC) screen in neuronal models is problematic due to high cost, environmental variation and human error. In order to detect cellular responses on a 'phenomics' scale using HC imaging one has to reduce variation and error, while increasing sensitivity and reproducibility. 
	Herein we describe a method to accurately and reliably conduct shRNA screens using automated cell culturing20 and HC imaging in neuronal cellular models. We describe how we have used this methodology to identify modulators for one particular protein, DJ1, which when mutated causes autosomal recessive parkinsonism21. 
	Combining the versatility of HC imaging with HT methods, it is possible to accurately quantify a plethora of phenotypes. This could subsequently be utilized to advance our understanding of the genome, the pathways involved in disease pathogenesis as well as identify potential therapeutic targets.

We describe a methodology combining automated cell culturing with high-content imaging to visualize and quantify multiple cellular processes and structures, in a high-throughput manner. Such methods can aid in the further functional annotation of genomes as well as identify disease gene networks and potential drug targets.

The functional annotation of genomes, construction of molecular networks and novel drug target identification, are important challenges that need to be ...

The Use of Cystometry in Small Rodents: A Study of Bladder Chemosensation

The lower urinary tract (LUT) functions as a dynamic reservoir that is able to store urine and to efficiently expel it at a convenient time. While storing urine, however, the bladder is exposed for prolonged periods to waste products. By acting as a tight barrier, the epithelial lining of the LUT, the urothelium, avoids re-absorption of harmful substances. Moreover, noxious chemicals stimulate the bladder's nociceptive innervation and initiate voiding contractions that expel the bladder's contents. Interestingly, the bladder's sensitivity to noxious chemicals has been used successfully in clinical practice, by intravesically infusing the TRPV1 agonist capsaicin to treat neurogenic bladder overactivity1. This underscores the advantage of viewing the bladder as a chemosensory organ and prompts for further clinical research. However, ethical issues severely limit the possibilities to perform, in human subjects, the invasive measurements that are necessary to unravel the molecular bases of LUT clinical pharmacology. A way to overcome this limitation is the use of several animal models2. Here we describe the implementation of cystometry in mice and rats, a technique that allows measuring the intravesical pressure in conditions of controlled bladder perfusion.
	After laparotomy, a catheter is implanted in the bladder dome and tunneled subcutaneously to the interscapular region. Then the bladder can be filled at a controlled rate, while the urethra is left free for micturition. During the repetitive cycles of filling and voiding, intravesical pressure can be measured via the implanted catheter. As such, the pressure changes can be quantified and analyzed. Moreover, simultaneous measurement of the voided volume allows distinguishing voiding contractions from non-voiding contractions3.
	Importantly, due to the differences in micturition control between rodents and humans, cystometric measurements in these animals have only limited translational value4. Nevertheless, they are quite instrumental in the study of bladder pathophysiology and pharmacology in experimental pre-clinical settings. Recent research using this technique has revealed the key role of novel molecular players in the mechano- and chemo-sensory properties of the bladder.

Cystometry is an efficient technique to measure bladder function of small animals in vivo. The bladder is continuously infused at rates controlled through an intravesical catheter, whereas the urethra is left free for micturition. This allows for repetitive filling and emptying of the bladder, while intravesical pressure and voided volume are recorded.

	The lower urinary tract (LUT) functions as a  dynamic reservoir that is able to store urine and to efficiently expel it at a  convenient time. While ...

Screening for Melanoma Modifiers using a Zebrafish Autochthonous Tumor Model

Genomic studies of human cancers have yielded a wealth of information about genes that are altered in tumors1,2,3. A challenge arising from these studies is that many genes are altered, and it can be difficult to distinguish genetic alterations that drove tumorigenesis from that those arose incidentally during transformation. To draw this distinction it is beneficial to have an assay that can quantitatively measure the effect of an altered gene on tumor initiation and other processes that enable tumors to persist and disseminate. Here we present a rapid means to screen large numbers of candidate melanoma modifiers in zebrafish using an autochthonous tumor model4 that encompasses steps required for melanoma initiation and maintenance. A key reagent in this assay is the miniCoopR vector, which couples a wild-type copy of the mitfa melanocyte specification factor to a Gateway recombination cassette into which candidate melanoma genes can be recombined5. The miniCoopR vector has a mitfa rescuing minigene which contains the promoter, open reading frame and 3'-untranslated region of the wild-type mitfa gene. It allows us to make constructs using full-length open reading frames of candidate melanoma modifiers. These individual clones can then be injected into single cell Tg(mitfa:BRAFV600E);p53(lf);mitfa(lf)zebrafish embryos. The miniCoopR vector gets integrated by Tol2-mediated transgenesis6 and rescues melanocytes. Because they are physically coupled to the mitfa rescuing minigene, candidate genes are expressed in rescued melanocytes, some of which will transform and develop into tumors. The effect of a candidate gene on melanoma initiation and melanoma cell properties can be measured using melanoma-free survival curves, invasion assays, antibody staining and transplantation assays.

A rapid way to screen for melanoma modifiers using a zebrafish autochthonous tumor model is presented. It takes advantage of the miniCoopR vector which allows for expression of candidate melanoma genes in melanocytes. A method to obtain melanoma-free survival curves, an invasion assay, a protocol for antibody staining of scale melanocytes and a melanoma transplantation assay are described.

Genomic studies of  human cancers have yielded a wealth of information about genes that are altered  in tumors1,2,3. A challenge arising from these ...

Voluntary Breath-hold Technique for Reducing Heart Dose in Left Breast Radiotherapy

Breath-holding techniques reduce the amount of radiation received by cardiac structures during tangential-field left breast radiotherapy. With these techniques, patients hold their breath while radiotherapy is delivered, pushing the heart down and away from the radiotherapy field. Despite clear dosimetric benefits, these techniques are not yet in widespread use. One reason for this is that commercially available solutions require specialist equipment, necessitating not only significant capital investment, but often also incurring ongoing costs such as a need for daily disposable mouthpieces. The voluntary breath-hold technique described here does not require any additional specialist equipment. All breath-holding techniques require a surrogate to monitor breath-hold consistency and whether breath-hold is maintained. Voluntary breath-hold uses the distance moved by the anterior and lateral reference marks (tattoos) away from the treatment room lasers in breath-hold to monitor consistency at CT-planning and treatment setup. Light fields are then used to monitor breath-hold consistency prior to and during radiotherapy delivery.

The current priority in breast cancer radiotherapy is to reduce cardiac doses without compromising target tissue coverage. The voluntary breath-hold technique described here is a simple, inexpensive solution to this problem and capable of being instituted widely without the need for specialized equipment.

Breath-holding techniques reduce the amount of radiation received by cardiac structures during tangential-field left breast radiotherapy. With these ...

Studying Pancreatic Cancer Stem Cell Characteristics for Developing New Treatment Strategies

Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) contains a subset of exclusively tumorigenic cancer stem cells (CSCs) which have been shown to drive tumor initiation, metastasis and resistance to radio- and chemotherapy. Here we describe a specific methodology for culturing primary human pancreatic CSCs as tumor spheres in anchorage-independent conditions. Cells are grown in serum-free, non-adherent conditions in order to enrich for CSCs while their more differentiated progenies do not survive and proliferate during the initial phase following seeding of single cells. This assay can be used to estimate the percentage of CSCs present in a population of tumor cells. Both size (which can range from 35 to 250 micrometers) and number of tumor spheres formed represents CSC activity harbored in either bulk populations of cultured cancer cells or freshly harvested and digested tumors 1,2. Using this assay, we recently found that metformin selectively ablates pancreatic CSCs; a finding that was subsequently further corroborated by demonstrating diminished expression of pluripotency-associated genes/surface markers and reduced in vivo tumorigenicity of metformin-treated cells. As the final step for preclinical development we treated mice bearing established tumors with metformin and found significantly prolonged survival. Clinical studies testing the use of metformin in patients with PDAC are currently underway (e.g., NCT01210911, NCT01167738, and NCT01488552). Mechanistically, we found that metformin induces a fatal energy crisis in CSCs by enhancing reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and reducing mitochondrial transmembrane potential. In contrast, non-CSCs were not eliminated by metformin treatment, but rather underwent reversible cell cycle arrest. Therefore, our study serves as a successful example for the potential of in vitro sphere formation as a screening tool to identify compounds that potentially target CSCs, but this technique will require further in vitro and in vivo validation to eliminate false discoveries.

Pancreatic cancer stem cells (CSCs) can be expanded in vitro using the anchorage-independent sphere culture technique, which represents a powerful tool to study CSC biology and can serve as the first step to develop novel CSC-targeting therapies. Here the methodology for expanding, analyzing and targeting of pancreatic CSCs is provided.

Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) contains a subset of exclusively tumorigenic cancer stem cells (CSCs) which have been shown to drive tumor ...

A High-content In Vitro Pancreatic Islet &#946;-cell Replication Discovery Platform

Loss of insulin-producing &#946;-cells is a central feature of diabetes. While a variety of potential replacement therapies are being explored, expansion of endogenous insulin-producing pancreatic islet &#946;-cells remains an attractive strategy. &#946;-cells have limited spontaneous regenerative activity; consequently, a crucial research effort is to develop a precise understanding of the molecular pathways that restrain &#946;-cell growth and to identify drugs capable of overcoming these restraints. Herein an automated high-content image-based primary-cell screening method to identify &#946;-cell replication-promoting small molecules is presented. Several, limitations of prior methodologies are surmounted. First, use of primary islet cells rather than an immortalized cell-line maximizes retention of in vivo growth restraints. Second, use of mixed-composition islet-cell cultures rather than a &#946;-cell-line allows identification of both lineage-restricted and general growth stimulators. Third, the technique makes practical the use of primary islets, a limiting resource, through use of a 384-well format. Fourth, detrimental experimental variability associated with erratic islet culture quality is overcome through optimization of isolation, dispersion, plating and culture parameters. Fifth, the difficulties of accurately and consistently measuring the low basal replication rate of islet endocrine-cells are surmounted with optimized immunostaining parameters, automated data acquisition and data analysis; automation simultaneously enhances throughput and limits experimenter bias. Notable limitations of this assay are the use of dispersed islet cultures which disrupts islet architecture, the use of rodent rather than human islets and the inherent limitations of throughput and cost associated with the use of primary cells. Importantly, the strategy is easily adapted for human islet replication studies. This assay is well suited for investigating the mitogenic effect of substances on &#946;-cells and the molecular mechanisms that regulate &#946;-cell growth.

A High-content In Vitro Pancreatic Islet &amp;#946;-cell Replication Discovery Platform

Critical challenges for the diabetes research field are to understand the molecular mechanisms that regulate islet &#946;-cell replication and to develop methods for stimulating &#946;-cell regeneration. Herein a high-content screening method to identify and assess the &#946;-cell replication-promoting activity of small molecules is presented.

Loss of insulin-producing &#946;-cells is a central feature of diabetes. While a variety of potential replacement therapies are being explored, expansion ...

Screening Bioactive Nanoparticles in Phagocytic Immune Cells for Inhibitors of Toll-like Receptor Signaling

Pharmacological regulation of Toll-like receptor (TLR) responses holds great promise in the treatment of many inflammatory diseases. However, there have been limited compounds available so far to attenuate TLR signaling and there have been no clinically approved TLR inhibitors (except the anti-malarial drug hydroxychloroquine) in clinical use. In light of rapid advances in nanotechnology, manipulation of immune responsiveness using nano-devices may provide a new strategy to treat these diseases. Herein, we present a high throughput screening method for quickly identifying novel bioactive nanoparticles that inhibit TLR signaling in phagocytic immune cells. This screening platform is built on THP-1 cell-based reporter cells with colorimetric and luciferase assays. The reporter cells are engineered from the human THP-1 monocytic cell line by stable integration of two inducible reporter constructs. One expresses a secreted embryonic alkaline phosphatase (SEAP) gene under the control of a promoter inducible by the transcription factors NF-&#954;B and AP-1, and the other expresses a secreted luciferase reporter gene under the control of promoters inducible by interferon regulatory factors (IRFs).Upon TLR stimulation, the reporter cells activate transcription factors and subsequently produce SEAP and/or luciferase, which can be detected using their corresponding substrate reagents. Using a library of peptide-gold nanoparticle (GNP) hybrids established in our previous studies as an example, we identified one peptide-GNP hybrid that could effectively inhibit the two arms of TLR4 signaling cascade triggered by its prototypical ligand, lipopolysaccharide (LPS). The findings were validated by standard biochemical techniques including immunoblotting. Further analysis established that this lead hybrid had a broad inhibitory spectrum, acting on multiple TLR pathways, including TLR2, 3, 4, and 5. This experimental approach allows a rapid assessment of whether a nanoparticle (or other therapeutic compounds) can modulate specific TLR signaling in phagocytic immune cells.

Toll-like receptor (TLR) signaling plays an important role in the pathophysiology of many human inflammatory diseases, and regulating TLR responses by bioactive nanoparticles is anticipated to be beneficial in many inflammatory conditions. THP-1 cell-based reporter cells provide a versatile and robust screening platform for identifying novel inhibitors of TLR signaling.

Pharmacological regulation of Toll-like receptor (TLR) responses holds great promise in the treatment of many inflammatory diseases. However, there have ...

Routine Screening Method for Microparticles in Platelet Transfusions

Platelet inventory management based on screening microparticle content in platelet concentrates is a new quality improvement initiative for hospital blood banks. Cells fragment off microparticles (MP) when they are stressed. Blood and blood components may contain cellular fragments from a variety of cells, most notably from activated platelets. When performing their roles as innate immune cells and major players in coagulation and hemostasis, platelets change shape and generate microparticles. With dynamic light scattering (DLS)-based microparticle detection, it is possible to differentiate activated (high microparticle) from non-activated (low microparticle) platelets in transfusions, and optimize the use of this scarce blood product. Previous research suggests that providing non-activated platelets for prophylactic use in hematology-oncology patients could reduce their risk of becoming refractory and improve patient care. The goal of this screening method is to routinely differentiate activated from non-activated platelets. The method described here outlines the steps to be performed for routine platelet inventory management in a hospital blood bank: obtaining a sample from a platelet transfusion, loading the sample into the capillary for DLS measurement, performing the DLS test to identify microparticles, and using the reported microparticle content to identify activated platelets.

Platelet inventory management based on screening microparticle content in platelet concentrates is a new quality improvement initiative in hospital blood banks. The goal is to differentiate activated from non-activated platelets to optimize the use of platelets. Providing non-activated platelets to hematology-oncology patients might reduce their high risk to become refractory.

Platelet inventory management based on screening microparticle content in platelet concentrates is a new quality improvement initiative for hospital blood ...

Hydra, a Computer-Based Platform for Aiding Clinicians in Cardiovascular Analysis and Diagnosis

Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) are the leading cause of death throughout the world. The total risk of developing CVD is determined by the combined effect of different cardiovascular risk factors (e.g., diabetes, raised blood pressure, unhealthy diet, tobacco use, stress, etc.) that commonly coexist and act multiplicatively. Most CVDs can be prevented by an early identification of the highest risk factors and an appropriate treatment. The stratification of cardiovascular risk factors involves a wide range of parameters and tests that specialists use in their clinical practice. In addition to cardiovascular (CV) risk stratification, ambulatory blood pressure monitoring (ABPM) also provides relevant information for diagnostic and treatment purposes. This work presents a list of protocols based on the Hydra platform, a web-based system for clinical decision support which incorporates a set of functionalities and services that are required for complete cardiovascular analysis, risk assessment, early diagnosis, treatment and monitoring of patients over time. The program includes tools for inputting and managing comprehensive patient data, organized into different checkups to track the evolution over time. It also has a risk stratification tool to compute a CV risk factor based upon several risk stratification tables of reference. Additionally, the program includes a tool that incorporates ABPM analysis and allows the extraction of valuable information by monitoring blood pressure over a specific period of time. Finally, the reporting service summarizes the most relevant information in a set of reports that aid clinicians in their clinical decision-making process.

This article presents a protocol based on Hydra &#8212; a web-based system for clinical decision support that integrates a full and detailed set of functionalities and services required by physicians for complete cardiovascular analysis, risk assessment, early diagnosis, treatment, and monitoring over time.

Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) are the leading cause of death throughout the world. The total risk of developing CVD is determined by the combined effect ...