This protocol was developed in the laboratories of Jane Dodd, Thomas Jessell and Andrew Lumsden. Many people, including Konrad Basler, Ann Calof, Thomas Edlund, Phil Hamilton, Domna Karagogeos, Ariel Ruiz i Altaba and Toshiya Yamada determined how to culture explants of spinal cord in collagen. Marysia Placzek and Marc Tessier-Lavigne pioneered the technique of using axon growth from in vitro explants as a means of identifying axon guidance molecules. Work in the Butler laboratory is supported by grants from the March of Dimes and R01 NS063999 from NIH/NINDS.

Part 1: Preparation of Aggregates of Transfected COS Cells using Hanging Drops
<ol>
 <li>Seed COS-7 (COS) cells in 35mm culture dishes. When they reach 80% confluency, transfect 1&mu;g of the expression plasmid into the cells using Lipofectamine2000 according to the manufacturer s protocol. </li>
 <li>To prepare hanging drops, aspirate the transfection medium and rinse the transfected COS cells with 1ml of 1x Phosphate Buffered Solution (PBS). Treat cells with 0.5ml of enzyme-free cell dissociation medium for 15 minutes. Add 1ml of a solution of Opti-MEM + 1x Penicillin/Streptomycin/Glutamine (P/S/G) + 10% Fetal Bovine Serum (FBS) to stop the reaction. </li>
 <li>Triturate the cells to remove them from the surface of the culture dish and transfer into a 15ml conical tube. Spin for 2 minutes at 2000K to pellet the cells. Remove supernatant and resuspend pellet in 100&mu;l of Opti-MEM + 1x P/S/G + 10% FBS.</li>
 <li>Spot multiple 20&mu;l drops on the inside of a 35mm culture dish lid, invert lid and place on top of the bottom of the dish and leave in a 37&deg;C incubator for several hours until the cells aggregate.</li>
</ol>
Part 2: Preparation of Dorsal Spinal Cord Explants
<ol>
 <li>Dissect E11 rat embryos from the uterus of the mother and keep on ice in L15 medium until needed.</li>
 <li>With a sharpened tungsten needle, remove a 4-6 segment section from the trunk of each embryo, from the region immediately below forelimb bud. Using a plastic pipette, collect the tissue pieces in one well of a 4-well Nunc dish and keep on ice. </li>
 <li>When all the embryo segments have been dissected, use the plastic pipette to transfer the pieces into a solution of 1ml L15 + 1mg dispase in a second well of the Nunc dish. Incubate at room temperature for no longer than 5 minutes. Do not over incubate the tissue pieces with dispase.</li>
 <li>During the incubation, add 0.5ml of heat inactivated normal goat serum (HIGS) to about 10ml of L15 into a Petri dish and swirl to mix. Transfer 1ml of this solution into a third well of the Nunc dish and transfer the tissue pieces into this solution when the incubation is over. Keep on ice. Note: the subsequent dissection will be easier if the tissue pieces are permitted to "rest" on ice for an hour.</li>
</ol>
Part 3: Priming Collagen
<ol>
 <li>Add 40&mu;l 10x Minimal Essential Medium to 360&mu;l collagen, mix rapidly and thoroughly by flicking or briefly vortexing the tube. Spin down rapidly in a picofuge. The solution will be yellow. Keep on ice as much as possible.</li>
 <li>Add enough 0.8M sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) to turn the collagen solution slightly orange (see note below). Again, mix rapidly and thoroughly by flicking, and spin down briefly in a picofuge. If the solution remains pink after mixing, you have added too much NaHCO3 and will need to start again with a fresh tube of collagen.</li>
 <li>At this point the collagen solution is primed. It will remain liquid on ice, but will solidify within about 5 minutes (turning pink) when brought to room temperature.</li>
 <li>Spot 20&mu;l of collagen in each well of a 4-well Nunc dish. Using the tip of your pipette, spread out the collagen to form a small "pad". Let the collagen set at room temperature.</li>
</ol>
Note: The exact amount of NaHCO3 will need to be titrated for each batch of collagen. Start low (11&mu;l) and then add 0.5-1&mu;l stepwise until the solution is a slight shade of orange. The "right" amount is usually 1ul less than the smallest amount of NaHCO3 that would turn the collagen pink. The amount of NaHCO3 does not scale linearly up or down.
Part 4: Dissection of Dorsal Spinal Cord Explants and Positioning of Them with COS Cell Aggregates in Collagen Matrix
<ol>
 <li>Using a freshly sharpened tungsten needle and a pair of fine forceps (#5 or #55), remove the mesoderm surrounding the spinal cord.</li>
 <li>Cutting parallel to the floor plate with the tungsten needle, carefully remove the ventral fifth of the spinal cord.</li>
 <li>Bisect the dorsal spinal explant, making sure that edges are as cleanly cut as possible. Re-trim the edges, if necessary. Transfer each dorsal spinal explant onto separate collagen pads using a mouth pipette fitted with a glass capillary tube pulled to approx. 0.5mm in diameter. </li>
 <li>Cut the aggregate of transfected COS cells into squares of approximately the same width as the lateral edge of the dorsal spinal explant.</li>
 <li>Transfer one of these squares onto the collagen pad with the dorsal spinal explant, using a mouth pipette.</li>
 <li>With the mouth pipette, aspirate off any excess liquid using the mouth pipette. Do not over aspirate.</li>
 <li>Apply 4&mu;l of primed collagen onto the pad, and, using the tungsten needle, move the collagen over the explants without directly touching the tissue. By moving the tungsten needle in the collagen surrounding the explants, orient the explants so that the COS cells aggregate is adjacent to the lateral edge of the dorsal spinal explant.</li>
 <li>After the collagen has set, repeat the application of 4&mu;l of collagen to ensure that the explants are completely encased in collagen.</li>
 <li>In a tissue culture hood, add 0.5ml of Opti-MEM + 1xP/S/G and culture for 30-40 hours.</li>
 <li>Fix explants for 45 minutes with 0.5ml 4% paraformaldehyde in 1xPBS, keeping the plate on ice.</li>
 <li>Wash twice with 0.5ml of a blocking solution of 1xPBS + 0.1% Triton-X100 +1% HIGS (PBTN). Block at 4&deg;C for at least a couple of hours, an overnight incubation is preferable and then process by immunohistochemistry. </li>
</ol>
Part 5: Visualization of Commissural Axons by Immunohistochemistry
<ol>
 <li>After blocking in PBTN, cut the explants out of the 4 well plate with forceps and place in a 48-well dish. </li>
 <li>Add 200&mu;l of primary antibodies to each well and leave overnight at 4&deg;C. To visualize commissural axons, use a 1:6 solution of mouse anti-Tag1 antibody. To determine whether the transfection was successful, also include a primary antibody against either the signaling molecule being tested, or the relevant epitope if the signaling molecule has been epitope tagged.</li>
 <li>Wash each sample for 5 x 1 hour in PBTN at 4&deg;C.</li>
 <li>Add 200&mu;l of secondary antibody to each well and leave overnight at 4&deg;C. If anti-Tag1 antibodies were used as the primary antibody, use a goat anti mouse IgM secondary antibody coupled to either FITC or Cy3. If using light sensitive secondary antibodies coupled to FITC or Cy3, keep the 48-well dish covered in foil from this point on.</li>
 <li>Wash each sample 5 x 1 hour each in PBTN at 4&deg;C.</li>
 <li>Transfer explant to a 3-well depression slide, remove excess liquid, mount in Vectashield medium and coverslip. Store in a light safe box at either 4&deg;C or -20&deg;C.</li>
</ol>
Part 6: Representative Images of Explants
In a successful experiment, the explant and COS aggregate will remain adjacent to one another and not drift apart as the collagen sets. There will be minimal overgrowth of axons; significant axonal overgrowth indicates that the dorsal spinal explant was cultured for too long. There will be no blebs growing from the explant; blebbing occurs if the tissue comes into direct contact with the culture medium. 
The ability of the signaling molecule to reorient axons is assessed using confocal microscopy. The extent of axon reorientation can be quantified by measuring the average angle of reorientation of the axons closest to the COS cell aggregate3. As shown in Figure 1, COS cells expressing myc-tagged BMP7 (blue) reorient Tag1+ commissural axons (green) away from the source of BMP7 (Figure 1B) similar to the manner to which an explant of roof plate repels commissural axons (Figure 1A). COS cells expressing a control vector have no effect on the orientation of commissural axons3,4. These explants were also labeled with antibodies against the transcription factor Isl1/2 (red), which decorates motor neurons and dorsal interneurons. This result was the first indication that a member of the BMP family mediates the activity of the roof plate chemorepellent3. 
<img src="/files/ftp_upload/1853/1853fig1tmb.jpg" border="0" /> Figure 1: Please <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/1853/1853fig1.jpg">click here</a> to see a larger version of figure 1.

<ol>
	<li>Altman, J., Bayer, S. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> The development of the rat spinal cord. , (1984).</li><li>Placzek, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Tissue+recombinations+in+collagen+gels.">Tissue recombinations in collagen gels.</a> Methods in molecular biology. , 325-335 (2008).</li><li>Augsburger, A., Schuchardt, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=BMPs+as+mediators+of+roof+plate+repulsion+of+commissural+neurons.">BMPs as mediators of roof plate repulsion of commissural neurons.</a> Neuron. 24, 127-141 (1999).</li><li>Butler, S. J., Dodd, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+role+for+BMP+heterodimers+in+roof+plate-mediated+repulsion+of+commissural+axons.">A role for BMP heterodimers in roof plate-mediated repulsion of commissural axons.</a> Neuron. 38, 389-401 (2003).</li><li>Kennedy, T. E., Serafini, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Netrins+are+diffusible+chemotropic+factors+for+commissural+axons+in+the+embryonic+spinal+cord.">Netrins are diffusible chemotropic factors for commissural axons in the embryonic spinal cord.</a> Cell. 78, 425-435 (1994).</li><li>Charron, F., Stein, E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+morphogen+sonic+hedgehog+is+an+axonal+chemoattractant+that+collaborates+with+netrin-1+in+midline+axon+guidance.">The morphogen sonic hedgehog is an axonal chemoattractant that collaborates with netrin-1 in midline axon guidance.</a> Cell. 113, 11-23 (2003).</li><li>Lumsden, A. G., Davies, A. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Chemotropic+effect+of+specific+target+epithelium+in+the+developing+mammalian+nervous+system.">Chemotropic effect of specific target epithelium in the developing mammalian nervous system.</a> Nature. 323, 538-539 (1986).</li><li>Dodd, J., Morton, S. B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Spatial+regulation+of+axonal+glycoprotein+expression+on+subsets+of+embryonic+spinal+neurons.">Spatial regulation of axonal glycoprotein expression on subsets of embryonic spinal neurons.</a> Neuron. 1, 105-116 (1988).</li><li>Yamauchi, K., Phan, K. D., Butler, S. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=BMP+type+I+receptor+complexes+have+distinct+activities+mediating+cell+fate+and+axon+guidance+decisions.">BMP type I receptor complexes have distinct activities mediating cell fate and axon guidance decisions.</a> Development. 135, 1119-1128 (2008).</li></ol>

The critical factors that determine success in performing this assay are first, the tissue should not be treated with dispase for too prolonged a period, such treatment will result in the tissue becoming very sticky and having decreased viability. Two, the collagen must be perfectly primed and kept on ice as much as possible. It will become increasingly difficult to handle if it starts to set, i.e. turn pink. Three, the tungsten needle must always be kept very sharp.

assaying the ability of diffusible signaling molecules to reorient embryonic spinal commissural axons

Dorsal commissural axons in the vertebrate spinal cord1 have been an invaluable model system in which to identify axon guidance signals. Here, we describe an in vitro assay, "the reorientation assay", that has been used extensively to study the effect of extrinsic and intrinsic signals on the orientation of commissural axons2. This assay was developed by numerous people in the laboratories of Jane Dodd, Thomas Jessell and Andrew Lumsden (see acknowledgements for more details) and versions of this assay were used to demonstrate the reorientation activities of key axon guidance molecules, including the BMP chemorepellent in the roof plate3,4 and the chemoattractive activities of Netrin15 and Sonic Hedgehog (Shh)6 in the floor plate in the spinal cord.
Explants comprising 2-3 segments of the dorsal two-thirds of spinal cord are dissected from embryonic day (E) 11 rats and cultured in three dimensional collagen gels7. E11 dorsal spinal explants contain newly born commissural neurons, which can be identified by their axonal expression of the glycoprotein, Tag18. Over the course of 30-40 hours in culture, the commissural axon trajectory is recapitulated in these dorsal explants with a time course similar to that seen in vivo. This axonal trajectory can be challenged by placing either test tissues or a COS cell aggregate expressing a candidate signaling molecule in contact with one of the lateral edges of the dorsal explant. Commissural axons extending in the vicinity of the appended tissue will grow under the influence of both the endogenous roof plate and signals from the ectopic lateral tissue. The degree to which commissural axons are reoriented under these circumstances can be quantified. Using this assay, it is possible both to examine the sufficiency of a particular signal to reorient commissural axons3,4 as well the necessity for this signal to direct the commissural trajectory9.

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Assaying the Ability of Diffusible Signaling Molecules to Reorient Embryonic Spinal Commissural Axons at JoVE.com

Assaying the Ability of Diffusible Signaling Molecules to Reorient Embryonic Spinal Commissural Axons

This assay assesses the ability of a signaling molecule, here Bone Morphogenetic Protein 7 (BMP7), to reorient commissural axons. An explant of embryonic dorsal spinal cord is cultured adjacent to an aggregate of COS cells secreting the candidate growth factors. Reoriented commissural axons growing within the explant are visualized by immunohistochemistry.

Dorsal commissural axons in the vertebrate spinal cord1 have been an invaluable model system in which to identify axon guidance signals.  Here, we ...

assaying-ability-diffusible-signaling-molecules-to-reorient-embryonic

Research

JoVE Journal

Biology

8.8K Views.  University of Southern California. Questo test valuta la capacità di una molecola di segnalazione, qui proteina morfogenetica dell'osso 7 (BMP7), di riorientare gli assoni commissurali. Un espianto di midollo embrionale dorsale spinale è colta adiacente a un aggregato di cellule secernenti COS i fattori di crescita candidato. Riorientato assoni commissurali crescita all'interno del espianto sono visualizzati mediante immunoistochimica.

Video: Assaying the Ability of Diffusible Signaling Molecules to Reorient Embryonic Spinal Commissural Axons

Fabrication of a Microfluidic Device for the Compartmentalization of Neuron Soma and Axons

In this video, we demonstrate the technique of soft lithography with polydimethyl siloxane (PDMS) which we use to fabricate a microfluidic device for culturing neurons. Previously, a silicon wafer was patterned with the design for the neuron microfluidic device using SU-8 and photolithography to create a master mold, or what we simply refer to as a "master". Next, we pour the silicon polymer PDMS on top of the master which is then cured by heating the PDMS to 80&deg;C for 1 hour. The PDMS forms a negative mold of the device. The PDMS is then carefully cut and lifted away from the master. Holes are punched where the reservoirs will be and the excess PDMS trimmed away from the device. Nitrogen is used to blow away any excess debris from the device. At this point the devices are now ready for use and can either bonded to corning No. 1 cover glass with a plasma sterilizer/cleaner or can be reversibly bound to the cover glass by simply placing the device on top of the cover glass. The reversible bonding of the device to glass is covered in a separate video and requires first that the device be sterilized either with 70% ethanol or by autoclaving. Plasma treating sterilizes the devices so no further treatment is necessary. It is, however, important, when plasma-treating the devices, to add liquid to the devices within 10 minutes of the plasma treatment while the surfaces are still hydrophilic. Waiting longer than 10 minutes to add liquid to the device makes it difficult for the liquid to enter the device. The neuron devices are typically plasma-bound to cover glass and 0.5 mg/ml poly-L-lysine (PLL) in pH 8.5 borate buffer is immediately added to the device. After a minimum of 3 hours incubating with PLL, the devices are washed with dH2O water a minimum of 3 times with at least 15 minutes between each wash. Next, the water is removed and fresh media is added to the device. At this point the device is ready for use. It is important to remember at this point to never remove all the media from the device. Always leave media in the main channel.

In this video we demonstrate the technique of soft lithography with polydimethyl siloxane (PDMS) which we use to farbricate a microfluidic device for culturing neurons.

In this video, we demonstrate the technique of soft lithography with polydimethyl siloxane (PDMS) which we use to fabricate a microfluidic device for ...

Spinal Cord Electrophysiology

The neonatal mouse spinal cord is a model for studying the development of neural circuitries and locomotor movement. We demonstrate the spinal cord dissection and preparation of recording bath artificial cerebrospinal fluid used for locomotor studies. Once dissected, the spinal cord ventral nerve roots can be attached to a recording electrode to record the electrophysiologic signals of the central pattern generating circuitry within the lumbar cord.

A demonstration of the isolation of neonatal mouse spinal cord for electrophysiologic studies.

The neonatal mouse spinal cord is a model for studying the development of neural circuitries and locomotor movement. We demonstrate the spinal cord ...

Mouse Embryonic Lung Culture, A System to Evaluate the Molecular Mechanisms of Branching

Lung primordial specification as well as branching morphogenesis, and the formation of various pulmonary cell lineages requires a specific interaction of the lung endoderm with its surrounding mesenchyme and mesothelium. Lung mesenchyme has been shown to be the source of inductive signals for lung branching morphogenesis. Epithelial-mesenchymal-mesothelial interactions are also critical to embryonic lung morphogenesis. Early embryonic lung organ culture is a very useful system to study epithelial-mesenchymal interactions. Both epithelial and mesenchymal morphogenesis proceeds under specific conditions that can be readily manipulated in this system (in the absence of maternal influence and blood flow). More importantly this technique can be readily done in a serumless, chemically defined culture media. Gain and loss of function can be achieved using expressed proteins, recombinant viral vectors and/or analysis of transgenic mouse strains, antisense RNA, as well as RNA interference gene knockdown.

Early embryonic lung organ culture is a very useful system to study epithelial-mesenchymal interactions. Both epithelial and mesenchymal morphogenesis proceeds under specific conditions that can be readily manipulated in this system.

Lung primordial specification as well as branching morphogenesis, and the formation of various pulmonary cell lineages requires a specific interaction of ...

Adenovirus-mediated Genetic Removal of Signaling Molecules in Cultured Primary Mouse Embryonic Fibroblasts

The ability to genetically remove specific components of various cell signalling cascades has been an integral tool in modern signal transduction analysis. One particular method to achieve this conditional deletion is via the use of the Cre-loxP system. This method involves flanking the gene of interest with loxP sites, which are specific recognition sequences for the Cre recombinase protein. Exposure of the so-called floxed (flanked by loxP site) DNA to this enzyme results in a Cre-mediated recombination event at the loxP sites, and subsequent excision of the intervening gene3. Several different methods exist to administer Cre recombinase to the site of interest. In this video, we demonstrate the use of an adenovirus containing the Cre recombinase gene to infect primary mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs) obtained from embryos containing a floxed Rac1 allele1. Our rationale for selecting Rac1 MEFs for our experiments is that clear morphological changes can be seen upon deletion of Rac1, due to alterations in the actin cytoskeleton2,5. 72 hours following viral transduction and Cre expression, cells were stained using the actin dye phalloidin and imaged using confocal laser scanning microscopy. It was observed that MEFs which had been exposed to the adeno-Cre virus appeared contracted and elongated in morphology compared to uninfected cells, consistent with previous reports2,5. The adenovirus method of Cre recombinase delivery is advantageous as the adeno-Cre virus is easily available, and gene deletion via Cre in nearly 100% of the cells can be achieved with optimized adenoviral infection.

In this video we use an adenovirus carrying the Cre recombinase gene to infect primary mouse embryonic fibroblasts carrying a floxed Rac1 allele.

The ability to genetically remove specific components of various cell signalling cascades has been an integral tool in modern signal transduction ...

Photobleaching Assays (FRAP &amp; FLIP) to Measure Chromatin Protein Dynamics in Living Embryonic Stem Cells

Fluorescence Recovery After Photobleaching (FRAP) and Fluorescence Loss In Photobleaching (FLIP) enable the study of protein dynamics in living cells with good spatial and temporal resolution. Here we describe how to perform FRAP and FLIP assays of chromatin proteins, including H1 and HP1, in mouse embryonic stem (ES) cells. In a FRAP experiment, cells are transfected, either transiently or stably, with a protein of interest fused with the green fluorescent protein (GFP) or derivatives thereof (YFP, CFP, Cherry, etc.). In the transfected, fluorescing cells, an intense focused laser beam bleaches a relatively small region of interest (ROI). The laser wavelength is selected according to the fluorescent protein used for fusion. The laser light irreversibly bleaches the fluorescent signal of molecules in the ROI and, immediately following bleaching, the recovery of the fluorescent signal in the bleached area - mediated by the replacement of the bleached molecules with the unbleached molecules - is monitored using time lapse imaging. The generated fluorescence recovery curves provide information on the protein's mobility. If the fluorescent molecules are immobile, no fluorescence recovery will be observed. In a complementary approach, Fluorescence Loss in Photobleaching (FLIP), the laser beam bleaches the same spot repeatedly and the signal intensity is measured elsewhere in the fluorescing cell. FLIP experiments therefore measure signal decay rather than fluorescence recovery and are useful to determine protein mobility as well as protein shuttling between cellular compartments. Transient binding is a common property of chromatin-associated proteins. Although the major fraction of each chromatin protein is bound to chromatin at any given moment at steady state, the binding is transient and most chromatin proteins have a high turnover on chromatin, with a residence time in the order of seconds. These properties are crucial for generating high plasticity in genome expression1. Photobleaching experiments are therefore particularly useful to determine chromatin plasticity using GFP-fusion versions of chromatin structural proteins, especially in ES cells, where the dynamic exchange of chromatin proteins (including heterochromatin protein 1 (HP1), linker histone H1 and core histones) is higher than in differentiated cells2,3.

Photobleaching Assays FRAP &amp; FLIP to Measure Chromatin Protein Dynamics in Living Embryonic Stem Cells

We describe photobleaching methods including Fluorescence Recovery After Photobleaching (FRAP) and Fluorescence Loss In Photobleaching (FLIP) to monitor chromatin protein dynamics in embryonic stem (ES) cells. Chromatin protein dynamics, which is considered to be one of the means to study chromatin plasticity, is enhanced in pluripotent cells.

Fluorescence Recovery After Photobleaching (FRAP) and Fluorescence Loss In Photobleaching (FLIP) enable the study of protein dynamics in living cells with ...

Assaying the Kinase Activity of LRRK2 in vitro

Leucine Rich Repeat Kinase 2 (LRRK2) is a 2527 amino acid member of the ROCO family of proteins, possessing a complex, multidomain structure including a GTPase domain (termed ROC, for Ras of Complex proteins) and a kinase domain1. The discovery in 2004 of mutations in LRRK2 that cause Parkinson's disease (PD) resulted in LRRK2 being the focus of a huge volume of research into its normal function and how the protein goes awry in the disease state2,3. Initial investigations into the function of LRRK2 focused on its enzymatic activities4-6. Although a clear picture has yet to emerge of a consistent alteration in these due to mutations, data from a number of groups has highlighted the importance of the kinase activity of LRRK2 in cell death linked to mutations7,8. Recent publications have reported inhibitors targeting the kinase activity of LRRK2, providing a key experimental tool9-11. In light of these data, it is likely that the enzymatic properties of LRRK2 afford us an important window into the biology of this protein, although whether they are potential drug targets for Parkinson's is open to debate.
A number of different approaches have been used to assay the kinase activity of LRRK2. Initially, assays were carried out using epitope tagged protein overexpressed in mammalian cell lines and immunoprecipitated, with the assays carried out using this protein immobilised on agarose beads4,5,7. Subsequently, purified recombinant fragments of LRRK2 in solution have also been used, for example a GST tagged fragment purified from insect cells containing residues 970 to 2527 of LRRK212. Recently, Dani&euml;ls et al. reported the isolation of full length LRRK2 in solution from human embryonic kidney cells, however this protein is not widely available13. In contrast, the GST fusion truncated form of LRRK2 is commercially available (from Invitrogen, see table 1 for details), and provides a convenient tool for demonstrating an assay for LRRK2 kinase activity. Several different outputs for LRRK2 kinase activity have been reported. Autophosphorylation of LRRK2 itself, phosphorylation of Myelin Basic Protein (MBP) as a generic kinase substrate and phosphorylation of an artificial substrate - dubbed LRRKtide, based upon phosphorylation of threonine 558 in Moesin - have all been used, as have a series of putative physiological substrates including &alpha;-synuclein, Moesin and 4-EBP14-17. The status of these proteins as substrates for LRRK2 remains unclear, and as such the protocol described below will focus on using MBP as a generic substrate, noting the utility of this system to assay LRRK2 kinase activity directed against a range of potential substrates.

Assaying the Kinase Activity of LRRK2 in vitro

Leucine Rich Repeat Kinase 2 is a large multidomain kinase, mutations in which are the most common genetic cause of Parkinson's disease. Analysis of the kinase activity of this protein has proven to be a crucial tool in understanding the biology and dysfunction of this protein. In this paper, in vitro assaying of the kinase activity of LRRK2 and a selection of its mutants is described, providing an experimental system to examine phosphorylation of putative substrates and potential dysfunction of LRRK2 in disease.

Leucine Rich Repeat Kinase 2 (LRRK2) is a 2527 amino acid member of the ROCO family of proteins, possessing a complex, multidomain structure including a ...

A System for ex vivo Culturing of Embryonic Pancreas

The pancreas controls vital functions of our body, including the production of digestive enzymes and regulation of blood sugar levels1. Although in the past decade many studies have contributed to a solid foundation for understanding pancreatic organogenesis, important gaps persist in our knowledge of early pancreas formation2. A complete understanding of these early events will provide insight into the development of this organ, but also into incurable diseases that target the pancreas, such as diabetes or pancreatic cancer. Finally, this information will generate a blueprint for developing cell-replacement therapies in the context of diabetes.
 During embryogenesis, the pancreas originates from distinct embryonic outgrowths of the dorsal and ventral foregut endoderm at embryonic day (E) 9.5 in the mouse embryo3,4. Both outgrowths evaginate into the surrounding mesenchyme as solid epithelial buds, which undergo proliferation, branching and differentiation to generate a fully mature organ2,5,6. Recent evidences have suggested that growth and differentiation of pancreatic cell lineages, including the insulin-producing &beta;-cells, depends on proper tissue-architecture, epithelial remodeling and cell positioning within the branching pancreatic epithelium7,8. However, how branching morphogenesis occurs and is coordinated with proliferation and differentiation in the pancreas is largely unknown. This is in part due to the fact that current knowledge about these developmental processes has relied almost exclusively on analysis of fixed specimens, while morphogenetic events are highly dynamic.
 Here, we report a method for dissecting and culturing mouse embryonic pancreatic buds ex vivo on glass bottom dishes, which allow direct visualization of the developing pancreas (Figure 1). This culture system is ideally devised for confocal laser scanning microscopy and, in particular, live-cell imaging. Pancreatic explants can be prepared not only from wild-type mouse embryos, but also from genetically engineered mouse strains (e.g. transgenic or knockout), allowing real-time studies of mutant phenotypes. Moreover, this ex vivo culture system is valuable to study the effects of chemical compounds on pancreatic development, enabling to obtain quantitative data about proliferation and growth, elongation, branching, tubulogenesis and differentiation. In conclusion, the development of an ex vivo pancreatic explant culture method combined with high-resolution imaging provides a strong platform for observing morphogenetic and differentiation events as they occur within the developing mouse embryo.

A System for ex vivo Culturing of Embryonic Pancreas

Here, we describe a method for isolation, culture and manipulation of mouse embryonic pancreas. This represents an excellent ex vivo system for studying various aspects of pancreatic development, including morphogenesis, differentiation and growth. Pancreatic bud explants can be cultured for several days and used in a range of different applications, including whole-mount immunofluorescence and live imaging.

The pancreas controls vital functions of our body,  including the production of digestive enzymes and regulation of blood sugar  levels1. Although in the ...

Blastomere Explants to Test for Cell Fate Commitment During Embryonic Development

Fate maps, constructed from lineage tracing all of the cells of an embryo, reveal which tissues descend from each cell of the embryo. Although fate maps are very useful for identifying the precursors of an organ and for elucidating the developmental path by which the descendant cells populate that organ in the normal embryo, they do not illustrate the full developmental potential of a precursor cell or identify the mechanisms by which its fate is determined. To test for cell fate commitment, one compares a cell's normal repertoire of descendants in the intact embryo (the fate map) with those expressed after an experimental manipulation. Is the cell's fate fixed (committed) regardless of the surrounding cellular environment, or is it influenced by external factors provided by its neighbors? Using the comprehensive fate maps of the Xenopus embryo, we describe how to identify, isolate and culture single cleavage stage precursors, called blastomeres. This approach allows one to assess whether these early cells are committed to the fate they acquire in their normal environment in the intact embryo, require interactions with their neighboring cells, or can be influenced to express alternate fates if exposed to other types of signals.

The fate of an individual embryonic cell can be influenced by inherited molecules and/or by signals from neighboring cells. Utilizing fate maps of the cleavage stage Xenopus embryo, single blastomeres can be identified for culture in isolation to assess the contributions of inherited molecules versus cell-cell interactions.

Fate maps, constructed from lineage tracing all of the cells of an embryo, reveal  which tissues descend from each cell of the embryo.  Although fate maps ...

Mechanical Stimulation-induced Calcium Wave Propagation in Cell Monolayers: The Example of Bovine Corneal Endothelial Cells

Intercellular communication is essential for the coordination of physiological processes between cells in a variety of organs and tissues, including the brain, liver, retina, cochlea and vasculature. In experimental settings, intercellular Ca2+-waves can be elicited by applying a mechanical stimulus to a single cell. This leads to the release of the intracellular signaling molecules IP3 and Ca2+ that initiate the propagation of the Ca2+-wave concentrically from the mechanically stimulated cell to the neighboring cells. The main molecular pathways that control intercellular Ca2+-wave propagation are provided by gap junction channels through the direct transfer of IP3 and by hemichannels through the release of ATP. Identification and characterization of the properties and regulation of different connexin and pannexin isoforms as gap junction channels and hemichannels are allowed by the quantification of the spread of the intercellular Ca2+-wave, siRNA, and the use of inhibitors of gap junction channels and hemichannels. Here, we describe a method to measure intercellular Ca2+-wave in monolayers of primary corneal endothelial cells loaded with Fluo4-AM in response to a controlled and localized mechanical stimulus provoked by an acute, short-lasting deformation of the cell as a result of touching the cell membrane with a micromanipulator-controlled glass micropipette with a tip diameter of less than 1 &mu;m. We also describe the isolation of primary bovine corneal endothelial cells and its use as model system to assess Cx43-hemichannel activity as the driven force for intercellular Ca2+-waves through the release of ATP. Finally, we discuss the use, advantages, limitations and alternatives of this method in the context of gap junction channel and hemichannel research.

Intercellular Ca2+-waves are driven by gap junction channels and hemichannels. Here, we describe a method to measure intercellular Ca2+-waves in cell monolayers in response to a local single-cell mechanical stimulus and its application to investigate the properties and regulation of gap junction channels and hemichannels.

Intercellular communication is essential for the coordination of physiological processes between cells in a variety of organs and tissues, including the ...

Genome-wide Mapping of Drug-DNA Interactions in Cells with COSMIC (Crosslinking of Small Molecules to Isolate Chromatin)

The genome is the target of some of the most effective chemotherapeutics, but most of these drugs lack DNA sequence specificity, which leads to dose-limiting toxicity and many adverse side effects. Targeting the genome with sequence-specific small molecules may enable molecules with increased therapeutic index and fewer off-target effects. N-methylpyrrole/N-methylimidazole polyamides are molecules that can be rationally designed to target specific DNA sequences with exquisite precision. And unlike most natural transcription factors, polyamides can bind to methylated and chromatinized DNA without a loss in affinity. The sequence specificity of polyamides has been extensively studied in vitro with cognate site identification (CSI) and with traditional biochemical and biophysical approaches, but the study of polyamide binding to genomic targets in cells remains elusive. Here we report a method, the crosslinking of small molecules to isolate chromatin (COSMIC), that identifies polyamide binding sites across the genome. COSMIC is similar to chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP), but differs in two important ways: (1) a photocrosslinker is employed to enable selective, temporally-controlled capture of polyamide binding events, and (2) the biotin affinity handle is used to purify polyamide&#8211;DNA conjugates under semi-denaturing conditions to decrease DNA that is non-covalently bound. COSMIC is a general strategy that can be used to reveal the genome-wide binding events of polyamides and other genome-targeting chemotherapeutic agents.

Genome-wide Mapping of Drug-DNA Interactions in Cells with COSMIC Crosslinking of Small Molecules to Isolate Chromatin

Identifying the direct targets of genome-targeting molecules remains a major challenge. To understand how DNA-binding molecules engage the genome, we developed a method that relies on crosslinking of small molecules to isolate chromatin (COSMIC).