The authors wish to acknowledge the following: Dr. Joseph Bronzino, Dr. Khamis Abu-Hassaballah, Mr. R.J. Austin-LaFrance, and Ms. Jessica Koranda.

This protocol is appropriate for mice of 3 and 18 months of age and approximate body weight of 30-50 g). Mice can be obtained from The Jackson Laboratory (Bar Harbor, ME). All surgical and experimental protocols were approved by the Trinity College Animal Care and Use Committee and were in accordance with the NIH Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals.
1. Animal Preparation and Surgical Procedures
<ol>
	<li>Prepare anesthesia cocktail containing ketamine (25 mg/ml), xylazine (2.5 mg/ml) and acepromazine (0.5 mg/ml). Inject 1 ml/kg body weight in the lower right quadrant of the abdomen supplemented by 0.2 ml/kg injections every 45 min&#160;thereafter to maintain a stable depth of anesthesia using the pedal withdrawal reflex.</li>
	<li>Prepare anesthetized mouse for surgery by shaving the fur on its cranium using an electric shaver. The shaved area should include the middle of the eyes to the middle of the ears. Make sure not to shave the whiskers as they are part of the mouse barrel sensory system.</li>
	<li>Use cotton swabs to apply isopropyl alcohol followed by Betadine to the shaved area on the head. Then, also using cotton swabs, apply a small amount of mineral oil on the eyes to prevent the eyeballs from drying.</li>
	<li>Use infant rat ear cuffs instead of regular ear bars to mount the animal&#8217;s head on the stereotaxic frame apparatus. To do this, first mount the left ear on the left ear cuff. Then gently ease the right ear onto the right cuff by gently supporting the animal&#8217;s head with one hand and advancing the ear cuff with the other hand. Next, place a heating pad under the animal&#8217;s body and set it to 86 &#176;F to maintain body temperature.</li>
	<li>Then, check for bilateral rigidity by attempting to move the head side to side. The animal is properly mounted on the stereotaxic frame when the head is rigid and cannot be moved side to side but can easily pivot up and down.</li>
	<li>Gently rest the mouse&#8217;s snout on the nose/tooth bar assembly making sure that the incisors are resting gently but securely within the tooth aperture of the nose/tooth bar.</li>
	<li>Using a sterile scalpel, make a midline incision starting from the middle of the eyes to the middle of the ears. Make sure the scalpel is be held at a 45&#176;&#160;angle and apply enough pressure to cut through the underlying fascia but not through the skull as that will cause excessive bleeding.</li>
	<li>Use cotton swabs to separate the fascia and expose the skull. Skull landmarks bregma and lambda should be clearly visible (Figure&#160;1A). Ensure that the animal is in the skull flat position by adjusting the nose/tooth bar such that bregma and lambda landmarks are at same the dorsoventral (DV) position (+ 0.1 mm).</li>
	<li>Apply a small amount of sterile saline to the exposed area and use cotton swabs to gently clean the skull. Then wait 2-3 min&#160;for the skull to completely air dry before proceeding.</li>
	<li>Mount a needle on the left stereotaxic arm to measure the DV position of bregma and lambda. The DV positioning of these two landmarks should be within 0.1 mm of each other. If not, the nose bar of the stereotaxic frame can be adjusted up and down to achieve this.</li>
	<li>Position the needle on bregma to record its anterior-posterior (AP), lateral (LAT) and dorsoventral (DV) measurements. Be sure the needle just touches the skull and does not penetrate it.</li>
	<li>Use a mouse brain atlas, such as &#8220;The Mouse Brain in Stereotaxic Coordinates&#8221;1, to determine the coordinates for the target structures: medial perforant pathway (mPP) in the angular bundle and dentate gyrus (DG) of the hippocampus, relative to lambda and bregma, respectively (also see Table 1). Then, use a fine-point pen or pencil to mark these points on the skull.</li>
	<li>Also, mark two more points on the contralateral side of the skull. These points which will serve as ground (GND) and reference (REF) should be about 3 mm from the midline and positioned longitudinally relative to each other (Figure&#160;1A, also Table 1).</li>
	<li>Remove the needle marker from the left stereotaxic arm and replace it with an electric dental drill equipped with a stereotaxic mount. Position the drill over each marked point and make small burr holes of approximately 0.5 mm in diameter. When drilling, use a repetitive up-and-down motion and check frequently whether the drill has penetrated the skull to expose the brain surface.</li>
	<li>Gently but firmly drive a screw electrode (#0-80 1/8 in stainless steel machine screws, slotted fillister head) in each of the contralateral holes (GND and REF) such that they just touch the cortical surface without penetrating it (Figure&#160;1A). These two screw electrodes serve as ground and reference.</li>
	<li>Mount stimulating and recording electrodes in electrode holders on the left and right stereotaxic arms, respectively.</li>
	<li>Connect the stimulating electrode terminals to an electrophysiological stimulator with current isolation and the recording electrode terminal to an electrophysiological differential amplifier (gain = 1,000, bandpass filter = 1 Hz&#8211;3 kHz) and then to a digital oscilloscope for visual inspection of evoked responses. &#160;Also, connect GND and REF electrode terminals to the differential amplifier.</li>
	<li>Gently and slowly lower both stimulating and recording electrodes in 0.5 mm increments while visually monitoring the evoked response to a stimulus shock of 600-800 uA. Continue to lower each electrode until they reach their respective target DV position and a stereotypical signal is observed on the oscilloscope (Figure&#160;1B).</li>
	<li>Afterward, use dental acrylic cement to make a cap to hold the electrode terminals in place; any dental cement that touches the skin should be wiped off immediately.&#160; Once the dental cement is completely cured transfer the animal from the stereotaxic frame to a clean rodent cage. Use a heating lamp or pad to maintain core temperature.</li>
	<li>Monitor the animal every hour until it regains consciousness. An injection of flunixin may be administered as an analgesic.</li>
</ol>
2. LTP Induction
<ol>
	<li>Allow the animal 5-7 days to recover from surgery. Place the animal in the recording environment consisting of a faraday cage (122 cm x&#160;43 cm x&#160;43 cm) outfitted with soundproofing material and a 5-channel rotating commutator connecting the electrode leads to the stimulating/recording setup.</li>
	<li>Allow the animal to acclimate for 1-2 hr in the recording environment before connecting the electrodes to the stimulating and recording instruments (refer to step 1.17).</li>
	<li>Set the stimulator controls to output 400 uA and record the amplitude of an average of 10 evoked responses making sure that at least 10 sec&#160;elapse between stimuli. Use the method shown in Figure&#160;1C to quantify the evoked response. Repeat this procedure for 600, 800, 1,000, 1,200, and 1,400 uA.</li>
	<li>Construct an input/output curve by plotting the average amplitude of the evoked response versus stimulus intensity. From this plot determine the stimulus intensity which corresponds to 50% of the maximum amplitude measured. Use the 50% intensity for the remainder of the experiment.</li>
	<li>Then, using the 50% stimulus intensity, obtain a baseline by recording the average amplitude of 5 evoked responses every minute&#160;for 15 min. Again make sure that at least 10 sec&#160;elapse between stimuli.</li>
	<li>Subsequently deliver the tetanic stimulation consisting of 10 bursts of 10 pulses delivered at 400 Hz with a burst rate of 5 Hz to the medial perforant pathway. Monitor the animal closely for signs of seizure, including wet dog shakes. If the animal has a seizure the experiment should be terminated and all data from that animal should be excluded from the study results.</li>
	<li>Then, continue to record the average amplitude of 5 evoked responses every minute for 30 min&#160;posttetanization. After that, compare this amplitude to the baseline amplitude obtained in step 2.5 by calculating the percent change from baseline (Figure&#160;2).</li>
	<li>Following the conclusion of experiments, the animal is euthanized by means of inhalation of isoflurane&#8212;a method which is consistent with the Guidelines on Euthanasia of the American Veterinary Medical Association.</li>
</ol>

<ol>
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Authors have nothing to disclose.

In this protocol, we have demonstrated a reliable and simple method for studying LTP in DG in freely behaving mice. While many studies of LTP in awake rats have been performed3,4, very few have been conducted in awake mice primarily due to the technical complexity posed by the limited cranial real estate in mice and the weight of electrode headstages relative to the average weight of mice5. The few studies that have demonstrated LTP in DG in freely behaving mice utilized either microdrive electrode ...

The development of technology to manipulate genes has produced transgenic and knockout mouse models of almost every neurodegenerative and neurological diseases. This has necessitated translation of electrophysiological research techniques previously used in larger rodent species to the mouse animal model. One such neurophysiological investigation technique is the use long-term potentiation (LTP) to test the efficacy of synaptic connections within neuronal networks involved in various neuropathological disorders. This protocol describes techniques for reliable electrophysiological investigation of LTP in freely behaving mice. The advantage of this protocol over others is that it is simple and easy to implement; it is also rather less costly as it does not require neither the use of expensive computer-controlled microdrive systems nor field effect transistor headstages; and, to our knowledge, is the first video protocol of chronic electrophysiological recordings to study LTP in freely behaving mice. To this end, we describe in this article simple methodologies for studying long-term potentiation in freely behaving mice. These methodologies can readily be translated to transgenic and knockout mouse models of neuropathological disorders.

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		<col />
		<col />
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	<tbody>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:195px;">Ketamine (100 mg/ml)</td>
			<td style="width:104px;">Henry Schein</td>
			<td style="width:137px;">10177</td>
			<td style="width:79px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:195px;">Xylazine (20 mg/ml)</td>
			<td style="width:104px;">Henry Schein</td>
			<td style="width:137px;">33197</td>
			<td style="width:79px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:195px;">Acepromazine (10 mg/ml)</td>
			<td style="width:104px;">Henry Schein</td>
			<td style="width:137px;">2177</td>
			<td style="width:79px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="63">
			<td height="63" style="height:63px;width:195px;">Dental acrylic powder</td>
			<td style="width:104px;">Lang Dental Manufacturing Co.</td>
			<td style="width:137px;">1330CLR</td>
			<td style="width:79px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="63">
			<td height="63" style="height:63px;width:195px;">Dental acrylic liquid</td>
			<td style="width:104px;">Lang Dental Manufacturing Co.</td>
			<td style="width:137px;">1306CLR</td>
			<td style="width:79px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="63">
			<td height="63" style="height:63px;width:195px;">Tungsten wire (0.127 mm)</td>
			<td style="width:104px;">World Precision Instruments</td>
			<td style="width:137px;">TGW0515</td>
			<td style="width:79px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="63">
			<td height="63" style="height:63px;width:195px;">Stainless Steel Hypodermic Tubing (0.286 mm)</td>
			<td style="width:104px;">World Precision Instruments</td>
			<td style="width:137px;">832400</td>
			<td style="width:79px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:195px;">Flunixin (50 mg/ml)</td>
			<td style="width:104px;">Henry Schein</td>
			<td style="width:137px;">14165</td>
			<td style="width:79px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:195px;">Epoxilyte</td>
			<td style="width:104px;">Superior Essex</td>
			<td style="width:137px;">EP 6001-M</td>
			<td style="width:79px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="63">
			<td height="63" style="height:63px;width:195px;">Stainless steel wire insert (0.2 mm)</td>
			<td style="width:104px;">World Precision Instruments</td>
			<td>792900</td>
			<td style="width:79px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:195px;">Stereotaxic frame apparatus</td>
			<td style="width:95px;">Kopf Instruments</td>
			<td style="width:137px;">Model 902</td>
			<td style="width:79px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:195px;">Ear cuffs (ear cups)</td>
			<td style="width:95px;">Kopf Instruments</td>
			<td style="width:137px;">Model 921&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:79px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:195px;">Electrophysiological stimulator</td>
			<td style="width:95px;">Astro-Med, Inc.</td>
			<td style="width:137px;">S88</td>
			<td style="width:79px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="63">
			<td height="63" style="height:63px;width:195px;">Digital oscilloscope</td>
			<td style="width:95px;">B &#38; K Precision Corp.</td>
			<td style="width:137px;">2542</td>
			<td style="width:79px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:195px;">Current isolation unit</td>
			<td style="width:95px;">Astro-Med, Inc.</td>
			<td style="width:137px;">PSIU-6</td>
			<td style="width:79px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="84">
			<td height="84" style="height:84px;width:195px;">Differential amplifier</td>
			<td style="width:95px;">World Precision Instruments, Inc.</td>
			<td style="width:137px;">DAM-50</td>
			<td style="width:79px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:195px;">Commutator</td>
			<td style="width:95px;">Plastics One</td>
			<td style="width:137px;">SLC6</td>
			<td style="width:79px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:195px;">Dental drill</td>
			<td style="width:95px;">Stoelting</td>
			<td style="width:137px;">58650</td>
			<td style="width:79px;"></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

long-term potentiation of perforant pathway-dentate gyrus synapse in freely behaving mice

Studies of long-term potentiation of synaptic efficacy, an activity-dependent synaptic phenomenon having properties that make it attractive as a potential cellular mechanism underlying learning and information storage, have long been used to elucidate the physiology of various neuronal circuits in the hippocampus, amygdala, and other limbic and cortical structures. With this in mind, transgenic mouse models of neurological diseases represent useful platforms to conduct long-term&#160;potentiation (LTP) studies to develop a greater understanding of the role of genes in normal and abnormal synaptic communication in neuronal networks involved in learning, emotion and information processing. This article describes methodologies for reliably inducing LTP in the freely behaving mouse. These methodologies can be used in studies of transgenic and knockout freely&#160;behaving mouse models of neurodegenerative diseases.

Table 1 shows the coordinates for DG and mPP as used in this protocol. Figure&#160;1A shows the markings for the target structures on the skull; also shown are the location of the ground and reference electrodes. Figure&#160;1B illustrates representative evoked response traces both pre- and posttetanization in the same animal. Note that the posttetanization evoked response is larger than the pretetanization response which is indicative of LTP induction2. <stro...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Long-term Potentiation of Perforant Pathway-dentate Gyrus Synapse in Freely Behaving Mice at JoVE.com

Long-term Potentiation of Perforant Pathway-dentate Gyrus Synapse in Freely Behaving Mice

Transgenic and knockout mouse models of neurological diseases are useful for studying the role of genes in normal and abnormal neurophysiology. This article describes methodologies which can be used to study long-term potentiation, a cellular mechanism which may underlie learning and memory, in transgenic and knockout freely&#160;behaving mouse models of neuropathology.

Studies of long-term potentiation of synaptic efficacy, an activity-dependent synaptic phenomenon having properties that make it attractive as a potential ...

long-term-potentiation-perforant-pathway-dentate-gyrus-synapse-freely

Research

JoVE Journal

Behavior

14.0K Views.  Trinity College.  Transgenici e knockout modelli murini di malattie neurologiche sono utili per studiare il ruolo dei geni in neurofisiologia normale e anormale. Questo articolo descrive metodologie che possono essere utilizzati per studiare potenziamento a lungo termine, un meccanismo cellulare che può essere alla base dell'apprendimento e della memoria, in transgenici e knockout banche comportarsi modelli murini di neuropatologia. 

Video: Long-term Potentiation of Perforant Pathway-dentate Gyrus Synapse in Freely Behaving Mice

Mouse Short- and Long-term Locomotor Activity Analyzed by Video Tracking Software

Locomotor activity (LMA) is a simple and easily performed measurement of behavior in mice and other rodents. Improvements in video tracking software (VTS) have allowed it to be coupled to LMA testing, dramatically improving specificity and sensitivity when compared to the line crossings method with manual scoring. In addition, VTS enables high-throughput experimentation. While similar to automated video tracking used for the open field test (OFT), LMA testing is unique in that it allows mice to remain in their home cage and does not utilize the anxiogenic stimulus of bright lighting during the active phase of the light-dark cycle. Traditionally, LMA has been used for short periods of time (mins), while longer movement studies (hrs-days) have often used implanted transmitters and biotelemetry. With the option of real-time tracking, long-, like short-term LMA testing, can now be conducted using videography. Long-term LMA testing requires a specialized, but easily constructed, cage so that food and water (which is usually positioned on the cage top) does not obstruct videography. Importantly, videography and VTS allows for the quantification of parameters, such as path of mouse movement, that are difficult or unfeasible to measure with line crossing and/or biotelemetry. In sum, LMA testing coupled to VTS affords a more complete description of mouse movement and the ability to examine locomotion over an extended period of time.

Locomotor activity (LMA) is a simple and easily performed measurement of behavior in mice. Coupling of video tracking software (VTS) and LMA allows for the improvement of specificity and sensitivity, especially when compared with the manual, line crossing method of LMA analysis. Additionally VTS allows long-term tracking of mouse LMA.

Locomotor  activity (LMA) is a simple and easily performed measurement of behavior in mice  and other rodents. Improvements in video tracking software ...

Construction of Microdrive Arrays for Chronic Neural Recordings in Awake Behaving Mice

State-of-the-art electrophysiological recordings from the brains of freely behaving animals allow researchers to simultaneously examine local field potentials (LFPs) from populations of neurons and action potentials from individual cells, as the animal engages in experimentally relevant tasks. Chronically implanted microdrives allow for brain recordings to last over periods of several weeks. Miniaturized drives and lightweight components allow for these long-term recordings to occur in small mammals, such as mice. By using tetrodes, which consist of tightly braided bundles of four electrodes in which each wire has a diameter of 12.5 &mu;m, it is possible to isolate physiologically active neurons in superficial brain regions such as the cerebral cortex, dorsal hippocampus, and subiculum, as well as deeper regions such as the striatum and the amygdala. Moreover, this technique insures stable, high-fidelity neural recordings as the animal is challenged with a variety of behavioral tasks. This manuscript describes several techniques that have been optimized to record from the mouse brain. First, we show how to fabricate tetrodes, load them into driveable tubes, and gold-plate their tips in order to reduce their impedance from M&Omega; to K&Omega; range. Second, we show how to construct a custom microdrive assembly for carrying and moving the tetrodes vertically, with the use of inexpensive materials. Third, we show the steps for assembling a commercially available microdrive (Neuralynx VersaDrive) that is designed to carry independently movable tetrodes. Finally, we present representative results of local field potentials and single-unit signals obtained in the dorsal subiculum of mice. These techniques can be easily modified to accommodate different types of electrode arrays and recording schemes in the mouse brain.

The design and assembly of microdrives for in vivo electrophysiological recordings of brain signals from the mouse is described. By attaching microelectrode bundles to sturdy driveable carriers, these techniques allow for long-term and stable neural recordings. The lightweight design allows for unrestricted behavioral performance by the animal following drive implantation.

State-of-the-art electrophysiological recordings from the brains of freely behaving animals allow researchers to simultaneously examine local field ...

Trace Fear Conditioning in Mice

In this experiment we present a technique to measure learning and memory. In the trace fear conditioning protocol presented here there are five pairings between a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus. There is a 20 sec trace period that separates each conditioning trial. On the following day freezing is measured during presentation of the conditioned stimulus (CS) and trace period. On the third day there is an 8 min test to measure contextual memory. The representative results are from mice that were presented with the aversive unconditioned stimulus (shock) compared to mice that received the tone presentations without the unconditioned stimulus. Trace fear conditioning has been successfully used to detect subtle learning and memory deficits and enhancements in mice that are not found with other fear conditioning methods. This type of fear conditioning is believed to be dependent upon connections between the medial prefrontal cortex and the hippocampus. One current controversy is whether this method is believed to be amygdala-independent. Therefore, other fear conditioning testing is needed to examine amygdala-dependent learning and memory effects, such as through the delay fear conditioning.

In the following experiment we describe a protocol for trace fear conditioning in mice. This type of associative memory includes a trace period that separates the neutral stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus.

In this experiment we present a technique to measure learning and memory. In the trace fear conditioning protocol presented here there are five pairings ...

The Modified Hole Board - Measuring Behavior, Cognition and Social Interaction in Mice and Rats

This protocol describes the modified hole board (mHB), which combines features from a traditional hole board and open field and is designed to measure multiple dimensions of unconditioned behavior in small laboratory mammals (e.g., mice, rats, tree shrews and small primates). This paradigm is a valuable alternative for the use of a behavioral test battery, since a broad behavioral spectrum of an animal&#8217;s behavioral profile can be investigated in one single test.
The apparatus consists of a box, representing the &#8216;protected&#8217; area, separated from a group compartment. A board, on which small cylinders are staggered in three lines, is placed in the center of the box, representing the &#8216;unprotected&#8217; area of the set-up. The cognitive abilities of the animals can be measured by baiting some cylinders on the board and measuring the working and reference memory. Other unconditioned behavior, such as activity-related-, anxiety-related- and social behavior, can be observed using this paradigm. Behavioral flexibility and the ability to habituate to a novel environment can additionally be observed by subjecting the animals to multiple trials in the mHB, revealing insight into the animals&#8217; adaptive capacities.
Due to testing order effects in a behavioral test battery, na&#239;ve animals should be used for each individual experiment. By testing multiple behavioral dimensions in a single paradigm and thereby circumventing this issue, the number of experimental animals used is reduced. Furthermore, by avoiding social isolation during testing and without the need to food deprive the animals, the mHB represents a behavioral test system, inducing if any, very low amount of stress.

This protocol describes the modified hole board, which is a behavioral test set-up that comprises the characteristics of an open field and a traditional hole board. This set-up enables the differential analysis of unconditioned behavior of small laboratory mammals as well as the analysis of cognitive abilities.

This protocol describes the modified hole board (mHB), which combines features from a traditional hole board and open field and is designed to measure ...

A Novel Experimental and Analytical Approach to the Multimodal Neural Decoding of Intent During Social Interaction in Freely-behaving Human Infants

Understanding typical and atypical development remains one of the fundamental questions in developmental human neuroscience. Traditionally, experimental paradigms and analysis tools have been limited to constrained laboratory tasks and contexts due to technical limitations imposed by the available set of measuring and analysis techniques and the age of the subjects. These limitations severely limit the study of developmental neural dynamics and associated neural networks engaged in cognition, perception and action in infants performing &#8220;in action and in context&#8221;. This protocol presents a novel approach to study infants and young children as they freely organize their own behavior, and its consequences in a complex, partly unpredictable and highly dynamic environment. The proposed methodology integrates synchronized high-density active scalp electroencephalography (EEG), inertial measurement units (IMUs), video recording and behavioral analysis to capture brain activity and movement non-invasively in freely-behaving infants. This setup allows for the study of neural network dynamics in the developing brain, in action and context, as these networks are recruited during goal-oriented, exploration and social interaction tasks.

This protocol presents a novel methodology for the neural decoding of intent from freely-behaving infants during unscripted social interaction with an actor. Neural activity is acquired using non-invasive high-density active scalp electroencephalography (EEG). Kinematic data is collected with inertial measurement units and supplemented with synchronized video recording.

Understanding typical and atypical development remains one of the fundamental questions in developmental human neuroscience. Traditionally, experimental ...

A Pressure Injection System for Investigating the Neuropharmacology of Information Processing in Awake Behaving Macaque Monkey Cortex

The top-down modulation of feed-forward cortical information processing is functionally important for many cognitive processes, including the modulation of sensory information processing by attention. However, little is known about which neurotransmitter systems are involved in such modulations. A practical way to address this question is to combine single-cell recording with local and temporary neuropharmacological manipulation in a suitable animal model. Here we demonstrate a technique combining acute single-cell recordings with the injection of neuropharmacological agents in the direct vicinity of the recording electrode. The video shows the preparation of the pressure injection/recording system, including preparation of the substance to be injected. We show a rhesus monkey performing a visual attention task and the procedure of single-unit recording with block-wise pharmacological manipulations.

Here, we show the pressure injection of neuropharmacological substances during single-cell recording in an awake, behaving macaque monkey. This procedure allows pharmacological manipulation in the direct vicinity of a cortical recording site.

The top-down modulation of feed-forward cortical information processing is functionally important for many cognitive processes, including the modulation ...

Multi-layer Cortical Ca2+ Imaging in Freely Moving Mice with Prism Probes and Miniaturized Fluorescence Microscopy

In vivo circuit and cellular level functional imaging is a critical tool for understanding the brain in action. High resolution imaging of mouse cortical neurons with two-photon microscopy has provided unique insights into cortical structure, function and plasticity. However, these studies are limited to head fixed animals, greatly reducing the behavioral complexity available for study. In this paper, we describe a procedure for performing chronic fluorescence microscopy with cellular-resolution across multiple cortical layers in freely behaving mice. We used an integrated miniaturized fluorescence microscope paired with an implanted prism probe to simultaneously visualize and record the calcium dynamics of hundreds of neurons across multiple layers of the somatosensory cortex as the mouse engaged in a novel object exploration task, over several days. This technique can be adapted to other brain regions in different animal species for other behavioral paradigms.

Multi-layer Cortical Ca2+ Imaging in Freely Moving Mice with Prism Probes and Miniaturized Fluorescence Microscopy

Here, we present a procedure for performing large-scale Ca2+ imaging with cellular-resolution across multiple cortical layers in freely moving mice. Hundreds of active cells can be observed simultaneously using a miniature, head-mounted microscope coupled with an implanted prism probe.

In vivo circuit and cellular level functional imaging is a critical tool for understanding the brain in action. High resolution imaging of mouse cortical ...

A Wireless, Bidirectional Interface for In Vivo Recording and Stimulation of Neural Activity in Freely Behaving Rats

In vivo electrophysiology is a powerful technique to investigate the relationship between brain activity and behavior at a millisecond and micrometer scale. However, current methods mostly rely on tethered cable recordings or only use unidirectional systems, allowing either recording or stimulation of neural activity, but not at the same time or same target. Here, a new wireless, bidirectional device for simultaneous multichannel recording and stimulation of neural activity in freely behaving rats is described. The system operates through a single portable head stage that both transmits recorded activity and can be targeted in real-time for brain stimulation using a telemetry-based multichannel software. The head stage is equipped with a preamplifier and a rechargeable battery, allowing stable long-term recordings or stimulation for up to 1 h. Importantly, the head stage is compact, weighs 12 g (including battery) and thus has minimal impact on the animal&#180;s behavioral repertoire, making the method applicable to a broad set of behavioral tasks. Moreover, the method has the major advantage that the effect of brain stimulation on neural activity and behavior can be measured simultaneously, providing a tool to assess the causal relationships between specific brain activation patterns and behavior. This feature makes the method particularly valuable for the field of deep brain stimulation, allowing precise assessment, monitoring, and adjustment of stimulation parameters during long-term behavioral experiments. The applicability of the system has been validated using the inferior colliculus as a model structure.

A Wireless, Bidirectional Interface for In Vivo Recording and Stimulation of Neural Activity in Freely Behaving Rats

A wireless, bidirectional system for multi-channel neural recordings and stimulation in freely behaving rats is introduced. The system is light and compact, thus having minimal impact on the animal&#180;s behavioral repertoire. Moreover, this bidirectional system provides a sophisticated tool to assess causal relationships between brain activation patterns and behavior.

In vivo electrophysiology is a powerful technique to investigate the relationship between brain activity and behavior at a millisecond and micrometer ...

Automated, Long-term Behavioral Assay for Cognitive Functions in Multiple Genetic Models of Alzheimer's Disease, Using IntelliCage

Multiple factors&#8212;such as aging and genes&#8212;are frequently associated with cognitive decline. Genetically modified mouse models of cognitive decline, such as Alzheimer&#39;s disease (AD), have become a promising tool to elucidate the underlying mechanisms and promote the therapeutic advances. An important step is the validation and characterization of expected behavioral abnormality in the models, in the case of AD, cognitive decline. The long-term behavioral investigations of laboratory animals to study the effect of aging demand substantial efforts from researchers. The IntelliCage system is a high-throughput and cost-effective test battery for mice that eliminates the need for daily human handling. Here, we describe how the system is utilized in the long-term phenotyping of a genetic Alzheimer&#39;s disease model, specifically focusing on the cognitive functions. The experiment employs repeated battery of tests that assess spatial learning and executive functions. This cost-effective age-dependent phenotyping allows us to identify the transient and/or permanent effects of genes on various cognitive aspects.

Automated, Long-term Behavioral Assay for Cognitive Functions in Multiple Genetic Models of Alzheimer&#039;s Disease, Using IntelliCage

This paper describes a protocol for cognitive assessments for genetic models of the Alzheimer&#39;s disease using the IntelliCage system, which is a high throughput automated behavioral monitoring system with operant conditioning.

Multiple factors&#8212;such as aging and genes&#8212;are frequently associated with cognitive decline. Genetically modified mouse models of cognitive ...

Simultaneous Recordings of Cortical Local Field Potentials and Electrocorticograms in Response to Nociceptive Laser Stimuli from Freely Moving Rats

Electrocortical responses, elicited by laser heat pulses that selectively activate nociceptive free nerve endings, are widely used in many animal and human studies to investigate the cortical processing of nociceptive information. These laser-evoked brain potentials (LEPs) consist of several transient responses that are time-locked to the onset of laser stimuli. However, the functional properties of the LEP responses are still largely unknown, due to the lack of a sampling technique that can simultaneously record neural activities at the surface of the cortex (i.e., electrocorticogram [ECoG] and scalp electroencephalogram [scalp EEG]) and inside the brain (i.e., local field potential [LFP]). To address this issue, we present here an animal protocol using freely moving rats. This protocol is composed of three main procedures: (1) animal preparation and surgical procedures, (2) a simultaneous recording of ECoG and LFP in response to nociceptive laser stimuli, and (3) data analysis and feature extraction. Specifically, with the help of a 3D-printed protective shell, both ECoG and LFP electrodes implanted on the rat&#39;s skull were securely held together. During data collection, laser pulses were delivered on the rat&#39;s forepaws through gaps in the bottom of the chamber when the animal was in spontaneous stillness. Ongoing white noise was played to avoid the activation of the auditory system by the laser-generated ultrasounds. As a consequence, only nociceptive responses were selectively recorded. Using the standard analytical procedures (e.g., band-pass filtering, epoch extraction, and baseline correction) to extract stimulus-related brain responses, we obtained results showing that LEPs with a high signal-to-noise ratio were simultaneously recorded from ECoG and LFP electrodes. This methodology makes the simultaneous recording of ECoG and LFP activities possible, which provides a bridge of electrocortical signals at the mesoscopic and macroscopic levels, thereby facilitating the investigation of nociceptive information processing in the brain.

We developed a technique that simultaneously records both electrocorticography and local field potentials in response to nociceptive laser stimuli from freely moving rats. This technique helps establish a direct relationship of electrocortical signals at the mesoscopic and macroscopic levels, which facilitates the investigation of nociceptive information processing in the brain.

Electrocortical responses, elicited by laser heat pulses that selectively activate nociceptive free nerve endings, are widely used in many animal and ...