A.K. is supported by the Oppenheim Foundation and R.H. is supported by the Velux Foundation. We thank I. Krumbein for technical and K. Buder for histological support, and J. Goldschmidt (Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology, Magdeburg, Germany) for technical advice on TIMM staining.

All animal interventions are performed in accordance with the European Convention for Animal Care and Use of Laboratory Animals and the ARVO Statement for the Use of Animals in Ophthalmic and Vision Research. All experiments are approved by the local ethics committee. The procedure of ON injury in mice is described elsewhere9.
1. Intravitreal Manganese Injection
<ol>
	<li>Perform the Mn2+ injection 24 hr prior to the MR scan with the help of an assistant. Anesthetize the animals by intraperitoneal injection of a 5% chloral hydrate solution (420-450 mg/kg body weight in sterile PBS). For additional topical anesthesia, apply one drop of liquid conjuncain (0.4% oxybuprocaine hydrochloride) to the cornea prior to eye puncture. To inject 15 nmol Mn2+ per eye prepare a 7.5 mM MnCl2 solution, e.g., by diluting 1 L of 1 M MnCl2 stock solution in 132 L H2O. Load 5 &#181;l of the final solution into a 5 &#181;l Hamilton syringe connected to a 34 G&#160;small hub removable needle (RN needle).</li>
	<li>When starting with the right eye, position the mouse left-sided under a binocular microscope and gently open and fix the right eye between the thumb and forefinger of your left hand. Pick up the syringe with your right hand and take hold of the needle close to the tip. For atraumatic puncture of the eye bulb, carefully insert the needle into the vitreous body at the infero-temporal circumference approximately 1 mm distal to the limbus, thereby sparing scleral vessels.</li>
	<li>Next, the assistant slowly applies the total volume of 2 &#956;l&#160;while controlling the scale of the Hamilton syringe. During this procedure, monitor optimal needle placement under the microscope and avoid puncture of the lens or spilling of the liquid. Keep the needle statically inserted for an additional 30 sec, then withdraw it slowly to minimize liquid leakage from the injection site.</li>
	<li>Throughout the procedure, special care should be taken to avoid pressure to the eye. Likewise, avoid harsh or numerous attempts to puncture the eye bulb. Since Mn2+ uptake into RGCs and transport along the ON is already saturated at 15 nmol MnCl2, this minimizes signal variations by slightly imprecise injection volumes. For bilateral signal enhancement of the visual projection, repeat the injection procedure for the left eye.</li>
	<li>Apply ofloxacin-containing (3 mg/ml) eye drops and panthenol-containing ointment once after the procedure to prevent ocular infections and drying of the eye. Return the mice to their cages under normal housing conditions until the start of the MR scan.</li>
</ol>
2. Animal Preparation for MRI
<ol>
	<li>Anesthetize the mouse by administration of a 2%/98% isoflurane/oxygen gas mixture. Mount the mouse on a mouse holder in an almost horizontal, untwisted position. Insert it into the MR coil, which is then adjusted inside the MR scanner. Monitor respiration and heart rate by appropriate systems. For technical details, see Herrmann&#160;et al20.</li>
	<li>During MRI, supply anesthesia by continuous insufflation of an initially 1.5%/98.5% isoflurane/oxygen gas mixture via an evaporator connected to the mouse head holder by an integrated tube. During the scan, adjust the deepness of anesthesia according to the recorded vital parameters (i.e. aim for a stable respiration rate of about 40 breaths per minute). Using a heating device keep the body surface temperature stable between 35 and 37 &#176;C, as measured by a thermal sensor positioned at the abdominal site of the mouse. For technical details, see Herrmann&#160;et al17.</li>
	<li>After the scan, liberate the mouse from the holder and supply with pure oxygen to accelerate recovery from anesthesia. Additionally, keep the body temperature stable by using a red light heating source.</li>
</ol>
3. MRI Protocol
<ol>
	<li>The protocol is validated for a 3 Tesla scanner equipped with a dedicated, SNR-efficient, small animal coil (linearly polarized Litz coil) with an effective field of view of 35 mm &#215; 38 mm diameter. Operate the coil in transmit-receive mode.</li>
	<li>With the animal in its final position, adjust the tune and match of the coil with the aid of a frequency analyzer. Manually adjust the transmitter reference voltage and the shim currents to optimize image homogeneity and quality.</li>
	<li>Acquire T1 weighted 2D TSE images with a resolution of 0.5 mm &#215; 0.5 mm &#215; 2 mm in sagittal and transversal view for planning. Using the planning MR scans, acquire the MEMR images in coronal measurement direction, rotated to be parallel to the animal&#8217;s head with phase encoding along the left-right direction. To minimize acquisition time, use a rectangular field of view adjusted to the actual head dimensions. Employ a spoiled 3D FLASH sequence (VIBE 3D) using the following parameters: base matrix 256, field of view 54 mm &#215; 50.65 mm &#215; 14.08 mm, using 93.8% rectangular field of view in phase encode direction, and 128 slices of 0.11-mm slice thickness with slice resolution set to 61%.</li>
	<li>Activate the in-plane interpolation to create final images with 512 &#215; 480 &#215; 128, providing an effective resolution of 0.21 mm &#215; 0.21 mm &#215; 0.18 mm (0.1 mm &#215; 0.1 mm &#215; 0.09 mm interpolated), echo time TE = 6.51 msec, repetition time TR = 16 msec, bandwidth = 160 Hz/px, flip angle = 22&#176;. Apply two averages and three repetitions to achieve a total acquisition time (TA) of approximately 30 min.</li>
</ol>
4. MRI Data Analysis
<ol>
	<li>Analyze the data using the software syngo fastView. For quantitative signal enhancement, select defined regions of interest in 2D planar MRI recordings and determine signal intensities (SI) of the enhanced structure (SIMEMRI), tissue background (SIbackgr), and the standard deviation of the noise (SDN). Where necessary, use a mouse brain atlas to facilitate neuro-anatomical orientation for LGN and SC structures. Calculate the contrast-to-noise ratio (CNR) using the formula:</li>
	<li>CNR = (SIMEMRI&#8211; SIbackgr) / SDN</li>
	<li>Quantify three consecutive images for mean CNR calculation for each sample. In bilaterally injected animals, analyze each hemisphere independently.</li>
	<li>For depiction of horizontal, coronal and sagittal images, calculate multiplanar reconstructions from the original 3D MRI data set. These processed images are not recommended for quantitative analysis. To create animated 3D reconstructions (maximum intensity projections, MIPs) of the retino-tectal projection, use an angiography post-processing software module.</li>
</ol>
5. Mn2+ Autometallography (TIMM Staining)
<ol>
	<li>For TIMM staining of Mn2+ traced brain structures following MEMRI, inject a dosage of 15-150 nmol Mn2+ ivit 24 hr prior to imaging.</li>
	<li>After the MR scan, perfuse the animals with 30 ml ice-cold 0.325% Na2S in PBS (pH 7.4). Dissect retinae and freeze samples in Frozen section.</li>
	<li>Cut sequential, equatorial sections of 15 &#181;m thickness on a cryotome.</li>
	<li>Perform TIMM staining21 in the absence of fixative and cryoprotection according to Angenstein et al22.</li>
</ol>
6. Statistical Analysis
Perform statistical analyses using the Student&#8217;s t-test for single comparisons, followed by post hoc ANOVA. Data are presented as mean &#177; standard error. Individual N numbers are given separately for each experiment. Results reaching P &#8804; 0.05 are considered statistically significant (P &#8804; 0.05, *; P &#8804; 0.01, **; P &#8804; 0.001, ***).

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The authors declare that they have no competing financial interests.

MEMRI of the visual system extends conventional neurobiological techniques for assessing functionality under na&#239;ve and pathological conditions. Apart from providing a unique insight into the integrity of an isolated CNS fiber tract, MEMRI can be easily supplemented with behavioral tests, e.g., optometry and visually based water tasks, to investigate the immediate consequences of a given paradigm for visual perception. It also links electrophysiological and histological investigations with functional visual ...

Based on its favorable neuro-anatomical structure the rodent visual system offers unique possibilities to evaluate pharmacological compounds and their capability to mediate neuroprotection1 or pro-regenerative effects2,3. Moreover, it allows studies on the functional and neuro-anatomical characteristics of mouse mutants, as recently exemplified for mice lacking the presynaptic scaffolding protein Bassoon4. Furthermore, a broad spectrum of supplementary tools affords additional featuring of retinal ganglion cell (RGC) and RGC axon numbers as well as RGC activity, e.g., by electroretinography and behavioral tests, and the determination of cortical rearrangements by optical imaging of intrinsic signals. The latest technical developments in laser microscopy enable the in situ visualization of RGC regeneration by deep tissue fluorescence imaging in whole mount specimens of optic nerve (ON) and brain. In this histological approach, tetrahydrofuran based tissue clearing in combination with light sheet fluorescence microscopy permits the resolution of single fibers that re-enter into the deafferented ON and optic tract 5. While such techniques might be superior in resolution and determination of growth patterns, they do not enable repetitive and longitudinal analyses of individual growth events, which are particularly desired to assess the process of long term regeneration.
Contrast-enhanced MRI has been employed for the minimal invasive visualization of the retino-tectal projection in mice and rats6,7. This can be achieved by direct intraocular delivery of paramagnetic ions (e.g., Mn2+) to retinal cells. As a calcium analog, Mn2+ is incorporated into RGC somata via voltage-gated calcium channels and actively transported along the axonal cytoskeleton of the intact ON and optic tract. While it accumulates in brain nuclei of the visual projection, i.e. the lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) and superior colliculus (SC), transsynaptic propagation into the primary visual cortex appears negligible8,9, although it may occur10,11. Under MR sequencing, paramagnetic Mn2+ augments MR contrast mainly by shortening T1 spin-lattice relaxation time12. Such Mn2+ enhanced MRI (MEMRI) has been successfully applied in various neuro-anatomical and functional studies of rats, including the assessment of axonal regeneration and degeneration after ON injury13,14, the precise anatomical mapping of the retino-tectal projection15, as well as the determination of axonal transport characteristics after pharmacological treatment16. Recent refinements in the dosage, toxicity, and kinetics of neuronal Mn2+ uptake and transport, as well as improved MRI protocols have extended its application to studies on transgenic mice9 using 3 Tesla scanners commonly used in clinical practice17.
Here, we present a MEMRI protocol suitable for longitudinal in vivo imaging of the mouse retino-tectal projection and exemplify its applicability by assessing Mn2+ dependent signal enhancement under na&#239;ve and various neurodegeneration conditions. Our protocol places specific emphasis on MR data acquisition in a moderate 3 T magnetic field that is generally more accessible than dedicated animal scanners. In na&#239;ve mice, we illustrate how tract-specific signal intensity can be substantially and reproducibly become increased after intravitreal (ivit) Mn2+ application. Quantitatively, Mn2+ propagation along the visual projection occurs independently of the normal aging process (measured between 3 and 26 month old mice) and augmentation is refractory to visual stimulation and adaptation to darkness. In contrast, Mn2+ enrichment in thalamic and midbrain centers is diminished following acute ON crush injury18 as well as in nfkb1 knock-out mice (p50KO) suffering from spontaneous apoptotic RGC death and ON degeneration19. Thus, in expansion to conventional histological analysis, longitudinal MEMRI analysis of individual animals enables profiling of unique kinetics of neurodegenerative processes. This should prove useful for studies on neuroprotection and axonal regeneration associated with pharmacological or genetic interventions.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="934">
	<tbody>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:363px;">Manganese (II) chloride solution 1M</td>
			<td style="width:269px;">Sigma Aldrich, Taufkirchen, Germany</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">M1787</td>
			<td style="width:184px;">MEMRI contrast reagent</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;"></td>
			<td></td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Conjuncain</td>
			<td>Dr. Mann Pharma, Berlin, Germany</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">PZN 7617666</td>
			<td>0.4% oxybuprocaine hydrochloride</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Floxal eye drops</td>
			<td>Dr. Mann Pharma, Berlin, Germany</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">PZN 3820927</td>
			<td>3 mg/ml ofloxacin</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Ointment panthenol</td>
			<td>Jenapharm, Jena, Germany</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">PZN 3524531</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Chloral hydrate&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:269px;">Sigma Aldrich, Taufkirchen, Germany</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">C8383</td>
			<td>420-450 mg/kg body weight</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Isoflurane</td>
			<td>Actavis, Munich, Germany</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">PZN 7253744</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;"></td>
			<td></td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Hamilton syringe&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:269px;">Hamilton Company, Reno, NV, USA</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">7634-01</td>
			<td>SYR 5 &#181;l, 75 RN, no NDL</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">34 G&#160; needle (34/35/pst4/tapN)</td>
			<td style="width:269px;">Hamilton Company, Reno, NV, USA</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">207434/00</td>
			<td>removable needle RN, 34 gauge, lenght 38.1 mm, point style 4</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Binocular Stemi-2000</td>
			<td style="width:269px;">Zeiss, Oberkochen, Germany</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:363px;"></td>
			<td style="width:269px;"></td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">3T MRI scanner Magnetom TIM Trio</td>
			<td colspan="2">Siemens Medical Solutions, Erlangen, Germany</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Rat head coil</td>
			<td>Doty Scientific Inc., Columbia, SC, USA</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Mouse holder</td>
			<td style="width:269px;"></td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td>custom made</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Red light lamp</td>
			<td style="width:269px;"></td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;"></td>
			<td style="width:269px;"></td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:363px;">Frozen section medium NEG-50</td>
			<td style="width:269px;">Thermo Fisher Scientific, Schwerte, Germany</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">6502</td>
			<td>tissue embedding for cryo-sections</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;"></td>
			<td style="width:269px;"></td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:363px;">Sodium dihydrogen phosphate monohydrate (NaH2PO4)</td>
			<td>Merck, Darmstadt, Germany</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">106346</td>
			<td rowspan="2" style="width:184px;">for sulfide perfusion&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:363px;">Sodium sulfide nonahydrate (Na2S &#215; 9 H2O)</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich, Taufkirchen, Germany</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">208043</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:363px;">gum arabic</td>
			<td style="width:269px;">Roth, Arlesheim, Switzerland</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">4159</td>
			<td rowspan="5">for TIMM staining</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:363px;">Hydroquinone (C6H6O2)</td>
			<td style="width:269px;">Roth, Arlesheim, Switzerland</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">3586</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:363px;">Citric acid (C6H8O7)</td>
			<td style="width:269px;">Roth, Arlesheim, Switzerland</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">6490</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:363px;">Tri-sodium citrate dihydrate (C6H5Na3O7 x 2H2O)</td>
			<td style="width:269px;">Merck, Darmstadt, Germany</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">106448</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:363px;">Silver nitrate (AgNO3)</td>
			<td style="width:269px;">Roth, Arlesheim, Switzerland</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">7908</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

in vivo imaging of optic nerve fiber integrity by contrast-enhanced mri in mice

The rodent visual system encompasses retinal ganglion cells and their axons that form the optic nerve to enter thalamic and midbrain centers, and postsynaptic projections to the visual cortex. Based on its distinct anatomical structure and convenient accessibility, it has become the favored structure for studies on neuronal survival, axonal regeneration, and synaptic plasticity. Recent advancements in MR imaging have enabled the in vivo visualization of the retino-tectal part of this projection using manganese mediated contrast enhancement (MEMRI). Here, we present a MEMRI protocol for illustration of the visual projection in mice, by which resolutions of (200 &#181;m)3 can be achieved using common 3 Tesla scanners. We demonstrate how intravitreal injection of a single dosage of 15 nmol MnCl2 leads to a saturated enhancement of the intact projection within 24 hr. With exception of the retina, changes in signal intensity are independent of coincided visual stimulation or physiological aging. We further apply this technique to longitudinally monitor axonal degeneration in response to acute optic nerve injury, a paradigm by which Mn2+ transport completely arrests at the lesion site. Conversely, active Mn2+ transport is quantitatively proportionate to the viability, number, and electrical activity of axon fibers. For such an analysis, we exemplify Mn2+ transport kinetics along the visual path in a transgenic mouse model (NF-&#954;B p50KO) displaying spontaneous atrophy of sensory, including visual, projections. In these mice, MEMRI indicates reduced but not delayed Mn2+ transport as compared to wild type mice, thus revealing signs of structural and/or functional impairments by NF-&#954;B mutations.
In summary, MEMRI conveniently bridges in vivo assays and post mortem histology for the characterization of nerve fiber integrity and activity. It is highly useful for longitudinal studies on axonal degeneration and regeneration, and investigations of mutant mice for genuine or inducible phenotypes.

The ability of this imaging technique to accurately assess the vitality and functionality of the visual projection relies upon precise application of a nontoxic Mn2+ dosage to the vitreous body and its uptake by RGCs. This major assumption is tested in Figure 1, where layer specific Mn2+ uptake is demonstrated by autometallography (TIMM staining)21. Retina sections were analyzed at 24 hr after ivit application of either 15 nmol or 150 nmol Mn2+, or PBS...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about In vivo Imaging of Optic Nerve Fiber Integrity by Contrast-Enhanced MRI in Mice at JoVE.com

In vivo Imaging of Optic Nerve Fiber Integrity by Contrast-Enhanced MRI in Mice

This video illustrates a method, using a clinical 3 T scanner, for contrast-enhanced MR imaging of the na&#239;ve mouse visual projection and for repetitive and longitudinal in vivo studies of optic nerve degeneration associated with acute optic nerve crush injury and chronic optic nerve degeneration in knock-out mice (p50KO).

In vivo Imaging of Optic Nerve Fiber Integrity by Contrast-Enhanced MRI in Mice

The rodent visual system encompasses retinal ganglion cells and their axons that form the optic nerve to enter thalamic and midbrain centers, and ...

in-vivo-imaging-optic-nerve-fiber-integrity-contrast-enhanced-mri

Research

JoVE Journal

Neuroscience

13.3K Views.  Jena University Hospital.  Questo video illustra un metodo, utilizzando un clinico 3 scanner T, per contrasto-enhanced RM del mouse ingenua proiezione visiva e per studi ripetitivi e longitudinali in vivo di degenerazione del nervo ottico associati a lesioni acute ottico schiacciamento del nervo e la degenerazione del nervo ottico cronica topi knock-out (p50 KO). 

Video: In vivo Imaging of Optic Nerve Fiber Integrity by Contrast-Enhanced MRI in Mice

Methods for Experimental Manipulations after Optic Nerve Transection in the Mammalian CNS

Retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) are CNS neurons that output visual information from the retina to the brain, via the optic nerve. The optic nerve can be accessed within the orbit of the eye and completely transected (axotomized), cutting the axons of the entire RGC population. Optic nerve transection is a reproducible model of apoptotic neuronal cell death in the adult CNS 1-4. This model is particularly attractive because the vitreous chamber of the eye acts as a capsule for drug delivery to the retina, permitting experimental manipulations via intraocular injections. The diffusion of chemicals through the vitreous fluid ensures that they act upon the entire RGC population. Viral vectors, plasmids or short interfering RNAs (siRNAs) can also be delivered to the vitreous chamber in order to infect or transfect retinal cells 5-12. The high tropism of Adeno-Associated Virus (AAV) vectors is beneficial to target RGCs, with an infection rate approaching 90% of cells near the injection site 6, 7, 13-15. Moreover, RGCs can be selectively transfected by applying siRNAs, plasmids, or viral vectors to the cut end of the optic nerve 16-19 or injecting vectors into their target the superior colliculus 10. This allows researchers to study apoptotic mechanisms in the injured neuronal population without confounding effects on other bystander neurons or surrounding glia. RGC apoptosis has a characteristic time-course whereby cell death is delayed 3-4 days postaxotomy, after which the cells rapidly degenerate. This provides a window for experimental manipulations directed against pathways involved in apoptosis. Manipulations that directly target RGCs from the transected optic nerve stump are performed at the time of axotomy, immediately after cutting the nerve. In contrast, when substances are delivered via an intraocular route, they can be injected prior to surgery or within the first 3 days after surgery, preceding the initiation of apoptosis in axotomized RGCs. In the present article, we demonstrate several methods for experimental manipulations after optic nerve transection.

Optic Nerve transection is a widely used model of adult CNS injury. This model is ideal for performing a number of experimental manipulations that target the retina globally or directly target the injured neuronal population of retinal ganglion cells.

Retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) are CNS neurons that output visual information from the retina to the brain, via the optic nerve. The optic nerve can be ...

Transfection of Mouse Retinal Ganglion Cells by in vivo Electroporation

The targeting and refinement of RGC projections to the midbrain is a popular and powerful model system for studying how precise patterns of neural connectivity form during development. In mice, retinofugal projections are arranged in a topographic manner and form eye-specific layers in the Lateral Geniculate Nucleus (dLGN) of the thalamus and the Superior Colliculus (SC). The development of these precise patterns of retinofugal projections has typically been studied by labeling populations of RGCs with fluorescent dyes and tracers, such as horseradish peroxidase1-4. However, these methods are too coarse to provide insight into developmental changes in individual RGC axonal arbor morphology that are the basis of retinotopic map formation. They also do not allow for the genetic manipulation of RGCs.
Recently, electroporation has become an effective method for providing precise spatial and temporal control for delivery of charged molecules into the retina5-11. Current retinal electroporation protocols do not allow for genetic manipulation and tracing of retinofugal projections of a single or small cluster of RGCs in postnatal mice. It has been argued that postnatal in vivo electroporation is not a viable method for transfecting RGCs since the labeling efficiency is extremely low and hence requires targeting at embryonic ages when RGC progenitors are undergoing differentiation and proliferation6. 
In this video we describe an in vivo electroporation protocol for targeted delivery of genes, shRNA, and fluorescent dextrans to murine RGCs postnatally. This technique provides a cost effective, fast and relatively easy platform for efficient screening of candidate genes involved in several aspects of neural development including axon retraction, branching, lamination, regeneration and synapse formation at various stages of circuit development. In summary we describe here a valuable tool which will provide further insights into the molecular mechanisms underlying sensory map development.

Transfection of Mouse Retinal Ganglion Cells by in vivo Electroporation

We demonstrate an in vivo electroporation protocol for transfecting single or small clusters of retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) and other retinal cell types in postnatal mice over a wide range of ages. The ability to label and genetically manipulate postnatal RGCs in vivo is a powerful tool for developmental studies.

The targeting and refinement of RGC projections to the midbrain is a popular and powerful model system for studying how precise patterns of neural ...

Functional Neuroimaging Using Ultrasonic Blood-brain Barrier Disruption and Manganese-enhanced MRI

Although mice are the dominant model system for studying the genetic and molecular underpinnings of neuroscience, functional neuroimaging in mice remains technically challenging. One approach, Activation-Induced Manganese-enhanced MRI (AIM MRI), has been used successfully to map neuronal activity in rodents 1-5. In AIM MRI, Mn2+ acts a calcium analog and accumulates in depolarized neurons 6,7. Because Mn2+ shortens the T1 tissue property, regions of elevated neuronal activity will enhance in MRI. Furthermore, Mn2+ clears slowly from the activated regions; therefore, stimulation can be performed outside the magnet prior to imaging, enabling greater experimental flexibility. However, because Mn2+ does not readily cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB), the need to open the BBB has limited the use of AIM MRI, especially in mice.
One tool for opening the BBB is ultrasound. Though potentially damaging, if ultrasound is administered in combination with gas-filled microbubbles (i.e., ultrasound contrast agents), the acoustic pressure required for BBB opening is considerably lower. This combination of ultrasound and microbubbles can be used to reliably open the BBB without causing tissue damage 8-11.
Here, a method is presented for performing AIM MRI by using microbubbles and ultrasound to open the BBB. After an intravenous injection of perflutren microbubbles, an unfocused pulsed ultrasound beam is applied to the shaved mouse head for 3 minutes. For simplicity, we refer to this technique of BBB Opening with Microbubbles and UltraSound as BOMUS 12. Using BOMUS to open the BBB throughout both cerebral hemispheres, manganese is administered to the whole mouse brain. After experimental stimulation of the lightly sedated mice, AIM MRI is used to map the neuronal response.
To demonstrate this approach, herein BOMUS and AIM MRI are used to map unilateral mechanical stimulation of the vibrissae in lightly sedated mice 13. Because BOMUS can open the BBB throughout both hemispheres, the unstimulated side of the brain is used to control for nonspecific background stimulation. The resultant 3D activation map agrees well with published representations of the vibrissae regions of the barrel field cortex 14. The ultrasonic opening of the BBB is fast, noninvasive, and reversible; and thus this approach is suitable for high-throughput and/or longitudinal studies in awake mice.

A technique is described for broadly opening the blood-brain barrier in the mouse using microbubbles and ultrasound. Using this technique, manganese can be administered to the mouse brain. Because manganese is an MRI contrast agent that accumulates in depolarized neurons, this approach enables imaging of neuronal activity.

Although mice are the dominant model system for studying the genetic and molecular underpinnings of neuroscience, functional neuroimaging in mice remains ...

High-resolution In Vivo Manual Segmentation Protocol for Human Hippocampal Subfields Using 3T Magnetic Resonance Imaging

The human hippocampus has been broadly studied in the context of memory and normal brain function and its role in different neuropsychiatric disorders has been heavily studied. While many imaging studies treat the hippocampus as a single unitary neuroanatomical structure, it is, in fact, composed of several subfields that have a complex three-dimensional geometry. As such, it is known that these subfields perform specialized functions and are differentially affected through the course of different disease states. Magnetic resonance (MR) imaging can be used as a powerful tool to interrogate the morphology of the hippocampus and its subfields. Many groups use advanced imaging software and hardware (&#62;3T) to image the subfields; however this type of technology may not be readily available in most research and clinical imaging centers. To address this need, this manuscript provides a detailed step-by-step protocol for segmenting the full anterior-posterior length of the hippocampus and its subfields: cornu ammonis (CA) 1, CA2/CA3, CA4/dentate gyrus (DG), strata radiatum/lacunosum/moleculare (SR/SL/SM), and subiculum. This protocol has been applied to five subjects (3F, 2M; age 29-57, avg. 37). Protocol reliability is assessed by resegmenting either the right or left hippocampus of each subject and computing the overlap using the Dice&#39;s kappa metric. Mean Dice&#39;s kappa (range) across the five subjects are: whole hippocampus, 0.91 (0.90-0.92); CA1, 0.78 (0.77-0.79); CA2/CA3, 0.64 (0.56-0.73); CA4/dentate gyrus, 0.83 (0.81-0.85); strata radiatum/lacunosum/moleculare, 0.71 (0.68-0.73); and subiculum 0.75 (0.72-0.78). The segmentation protocol presented here provides other laboratories with a reliable method to study the hippocampus and hippocampal subfields in vivo using commonly available MR tools.

High-resolution In Vivo Manual Segmentation Protocol for Human Hippocampal Subfields Using 3T Magnetic Resonance Imaging

The goal of this manuscript is to study the hippocampus and hippocampal subfields using MRI. The manuscript describes a protocol for segmenting the hippocampus and five hippocampal substructures: cornu ammonis (CA) 1, CA2/CA3, CA4/dentate gyrus, strata radiatum/lacunosum/moleculare, and subiculum.

The human hippocampus has been broadly studied in the context of memory and normal brain function and its role in different neuropsychiatric disorders has ...

Simultaneous ex vivo Functional Testing of Two Retinas by in vivo Electroretinogram System

An In vivo electroretinogram (ERG) signal is composed of several overlapping components originating from different retinal cell types, as well as noise from extra-retinal sources. Ex vivo ERG provides an efficient method to dissect the function of retinal cells directly from an intact isolated retina of animals or donor eyes. In addition, ex vivo ERG can be used to test the efficacy and safety of potential therapeutic agents on retina tissue from animals or humans. We show here how commercially available in vivo ERG systems can be used to conduct ex vivo ERG recordings from isolated mouse retinas. We combine the light stimulation, electronic and heating units of a standard in vivo system with custom-designed specimen holder, gravity-controlled perfusion system and electromagnetic noise shielding to record low-noise ex vivo ERG signals simultaneously from two retinas with the acquisition software included in commercial in vivo systems. Further, we demonstrate how to use this method in combination with pharmacological treatments that remove specific ERG components in order to dissect the function of certain retinal cell types.

Simultaneous ex vivo Functional Testing of Two Retinas by in vivo Electroretinogram System

Ex vivo ERG can be used to record electrical activity of retinal cells directly from isolated intact retinas of animals or humans. We demonstrate here how common in vivo ERG systems can be adapted for ex vivo ERG recordings in order to dissect the electrical activity of retinal cells.

An In vivo electroretinogram (ERG) signal is composed of several overlapping components originating from different retinal cell types, as well as noise ...

Visual Evoked Potential Recording in a Rat Model of Experimental Optic Nerve Demyelination

The visual evoked potential (VEP) recording is widely used in clinical practice to assess the severity of optic neuritis in its acute phase, and to monitor the disease course in the follow-up period. Changes in the VEP parameters closely correlate with pathological damage in the optic nerve. This protocol provides a detailed description about the rodent model of optic nerve microinjection, in which a partial demyelination lesion is produced in the optic nerve. VEP recording techniques are also discussed. Using skull implanted electrodes, we are able to acquire reproducible intra-session and between-session VEP traces. VEPs can be recorded on individual animals over a period of time to assess the functional changes in the optic nerve longitudinally. The optic nerve demyelination model, in conjunction with the VEP recording protocol, provides a tool to investigate the disease processes associated with demyelination and remyelination, and can potentially be employed to evaluate the effects of new remyelinating drugs or neuroprotective therapies.

Focal demyelination is induced in the optic nerve using lysolecithin microinjection. Visual evoked potentials are recorded via skull electrodes implanted over the visual cortex to examine the signal conduction along the visual pathway in vivo. This protocol details the surgical procedures underlying electrode implantation and optic nerve microinjection.

The visual evoked potential (VEP) recording is widely used in clinical practice to assess the severity of optic neuritis in its acute phase, and to ...

High-resolution Structural Magnetic Resonance Imaging of the Human Subcortex In Vivo and Postmortem

The focus of this study was to test the resolution limits of structural MRI of a postmortem brain compared to living human brains. The resolution of structural MRI in vivo is ultimately limited by physiological noise, including pulsation, respiration and head movement. Although imaging hardware continues to improve, it is still difficult to resolve structures on the millimeter scale. For example, the primary visual sensory pathways synapse at the lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN), a visual relay and control nucleus in the thalamus that normally is organized into six interleaved monocular layers. Neuroimaging studies have not been able to reliably distinguish these layers due their small size that are less than 1 mm thick.
The resolving limit of structural MRI, in a postmortem brain was tested using multiple images averaged over a long duration (~24 h). The purpose was to test whether it was possible to resolve the individual layers of the LGN in the absence of physiological noise. A proton density (PD)1 weighted pulse sequence was used with varying resolution and other parameters to determine the minimum number of images necessary to be registered and averaged to reliably distinguish the LGN and other subcortical regions. The results were also compared to images acquired in living human brains. In vivo subjects were scanned in order to determine the additional effects of physiological noise on the minimum number of PD scans needed to differentiate subcortical structures, useful in clinical applications.

High-resolution Structural Magnetic Resonance Imaging of the Human Subcortex In Vivo and Postmortem

Here we present a protocol to determine the minimum number images that needed to be registered and averaged to resolve subcortical structures and test whether the individual layers of the LGN could be resolved in the absence of physiological noise.

The focus of this study was to test the resolution limits of structural MRI of a postmortem brain compared to living human brains. The resolution of ...

In Vivo Gene Transfer to Schwann Cells in the Rodent Sciatic Nerve by Electroporation

The formation of the myelin sheath by Schwann cells (SCs) is essential for rapid conduction of nerve impulses along axons in the peripheral nervous system. SC-selective genetic manipulation in living animals is a powerful technique for studying the molecular and cellular mechanisms of SC myelination and demyelination in vivo. While knockout/knockin and transgenic mice are powerful tools for studying SC biology, these methods are costly and time consuming. Viral vector-mediated transgene introduction into the sciatic nerve is a simpler and less laborious method. However, viral methods have limitations, such as toxicity, transgene size constraints, and infectivity restricted to certain developmental stages. Here, we describe a new method that allows selective transfection of myelinating SCs in the rodent sciatic nerve using electroporation. By applying electric pulses to the sciatic nerve at the site of plasmid DNA injection, genes of interest can be easily silenced or overexpressed in SCs in both neonatal and more mature animals. Furthermore, this in vivo electroporation method allows for highly efficient simultaneous expression of multiple transgenes. Our novel technique should enable researchers to efficiently manipulate SC gene expression, and facilitate studies on SC development and function.

In Vivo Gene Transfer to Schwann Cells in the Rodent Sciatic Nerve by Electroporation

Here, we present an in vivo technique for gene transfer to Schwann cells (SCs) in the rodent sciatic nerve. This simple technique is useful for investigating signaling mechanisms involved in the development and maintenance of myelinating SCs.

The formation of the myelin sheath by Schwann cells (SCs) is essential for rapid conduction of nerve impulses along axons in the peripheral nervous ...

In Vivo Two-photon Imaging of Cortical Neurons in Neonatal Mice

Two-photon imaging is a powerful tool for the in vivo analysis of neuronal circuits in the mammalian brain. However, a limited number of in vivo imaging methods exist for examining the brain tissue of live newborn mammals. Herein we summarize a protocol for imaging individual cortical neurons in living neonatal mice. This protocol includes the following two methodologies: (1) the Supernova system for sparse and bright labeling of cortical neurons in the developing brain, and (2) a surgical procedure for the fragile neonatal skull. This protocol allows the observation of temporal changes of individual cortical neurites during neonatal stages with a high signal-to-noise ratio. Labeled cell-specific gene silencing and knockout can also be achieved by combining the Supernova with RNA interference and CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing systems. This protocol can, thus, be used for analyzing the developmental dynamics of cortical neurons, molecular mechanisms that control the neuronal dynamics, and changes in neuronal dynamics in disease models.

In Vivo Two-photon Imaging of Cortical Neurons in Neonatal Mice

We present an in vivo two-photon imaging protocol for imaging the cerebral cortex of neonatal mice. This method is suitable for analyzing the developmental dynamics of cortical neurons, the molecular mechanisms that control the neuronal dynamics, and the changes in neuronal dynamics in disease models.

Two-photon imaging is a powerful tool for the in vivo analysis of neuronal circuits in the mammalian brain. However, a limited number of in vivo imaging ...

In vivo Calcium Imaging in Mouse Inferior Olive

Inferior olive (IO), a nucleus in the ventral medulla, is the only source of climbing fibers that form one of the two input pathways entering the cerebellum. IO has long been proposed to be crucial for motor control and its activity is currently considered to be at the center of many hypotheses of both motor and cognitive functions of the cerebellum. While its physiology and function have been relatively well studied on single-cell level in vitro, presently there are no reports on the organization of the IO network activity in living animals. This is largely due to the extremely challenging anatomical location of the IO, making it difficult to subject to conventional fluorescent imaging methods, where an optic path must be created through the entire brain located dorsally to the region of interest.
Here we describe an alternative method for obtaining state-of-the-art -level calcium imaging data from the IO network. The method takes advantage of the extreme ventral location of the IO and involves a surgical procedure for inserting a gradient-refractive index (GRIN) lens through the neck viscera to come into contact with the ventral surface of the calcium sensor GCaMP6s-expressing IO in anesthetized mice. A representative calcium imaging recording is shown to demonstrate the feasibility to record IO neuron activity after the surgery. While this is a non-survival surgery and the recordings must be conducted under anesthesia, it avoids damage to life-critical brainstem nuclei and allows conducting large variety of experiments investigating spatiotemporal activity patterns and input integration in the IO. This procedure with modifications could be used for recordings in other, adjacent regions of the ventral brainstem.

In vivo Calcium Imaging in Mouse Inferior Olive

We present a protocol to expose the brainstem of adult mouse from the ventral side. By using a gradient-refractive index lens with a miniature microscope, calcium imaging can be used to examine the activity of inferior olive neural somata in vivo.