The authors acknowledge Ryan Chaplin and Dr. Gregg Rentfrow of the University of Kentucky Meats Lab and Department of Animal and Food Sciences for providing opportunities to collect experimental tissues utilized herein.

Procedures used in this study did not require approval from the University of Kentucky Animal Care and Use Committee because no live animals were used. Prior to collection of any sample used herein, all animals were stunned with a captive bolt and exsanguinated. This was conducted at a federally inspected abattoir facility at the University of Kentucky. An official representative of the USDA Food Safety and Inspection Service observed all activities that dealt with the live animal and handling of the carcass.
1. Preparation of Instrumentation
<ol>
	<li>To minimize the amount of time between collections of tissue samples to the start of an experiment, set up equipment and prepare buffers prior to collecting experimental tissue (or if additional personnel are available, these tasks can occur simultaneously). 
	NOTE: This not only provides the greatest amount of time that the tissue remains viable to conduct experiments, but some experiments can run for long periods of time (or there is a desire to complete multiple experiments in a day), therefore it is usually desirable to get started as early as feasible.</li>
	<li>Power up the associated computer, data acquisitions equipment, water bath (for buffer(s)) and myograph unit(s). Place the calibration equipment on the myograph unit(s) and turn on myograph heat (preset to 37.5 &#176;C) and allow units and calibration equipment to warm to preset temperatures.
	<ol>
		<li>Open a previously created Chart software settings file on the computer and start a run (but not acquiring data).</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Warm up the equipment for 10 min.
	<ol>
		<li>Start acquiring data.</li>
		<li>Zero all channels.</li>
		<li>Check, and conduct calibration (if necessary) on each channel (4 channels per multimyograph) to standardize the electric signal supplied from the respective force transducer associated with that channel to a 2-g force supplied by a certified weight.</li>
		<li>After calibration and a units conversion are completed, store all subsequent data as grams. Change accordingly based on desires of each separate laboratory; the equipment and software permit the use of other units, such as milliNewtons and volts.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Make sure that the gas lines are clear of blockages and turn on gas supply (95% O2/5% CO2) to myograph(s) units. Continuously gas all buffers (in the myograph chambers) during the entire procedure.</li>
	<li>Fill all myograph chambers with 70% ethanol and soak for 10 min, remove ethanol, and repeat for a second 10 min soak.
	<ol>
		<li>After removing the ethanol, rinse three times with deionized water, followed by three rinses with prepared buffer (see Section 2 for buffer preparation), leaving the third addition of buffer in the chambers. 
		NOTE: At this point the equipment can remain idle in this state until buffer and tissue are prepared and staff is ready to proceed with the experiment.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
2. Preparation of Buffers
<ol>
	<li>Prepare a 1 L Krebs-Henseleit buffer solution for use in transportation and processing of tissue samples to achieve final concentrations of 11.1 mM D-glucose; 1.2 mM MgSO4; 1.2 mM KH2PO4; 4.7 mM KCl; 118.1 mM NaCl; 3.4 mM CaCl2; 24.9 mM NaHCO3.
	<ol>
		<li>Mix 9.6 g of Krebs salts into approximately 900 ml of deionized water on a stir plate.</li>
		<li>Mix in 0.373 g calcium chloride dehydrate followed by 2.1 g sodium bicarbonate per L of buffer desired.</li>
		<li>Gas buffer solution for 20 min with 95% O2/5% CO2.</li>
		<li>After gassing, adjust pH to 7.05 (filtration of buffer increases pH; final target pH should be 7.4) and adjust volume to 1 L.</li>
		<li>Filter sterilize buffer into a clean autoclaved 1 L media bottle and store buffer at 4 &#176;C until ready for use.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Prepare separate Krebs-Henseleit buffer solution for use in myograph experiments as described in step 2.1 for the transportation Krebs-Henseleit buffer with additional compounds that pertain to the contractility experiments. 
	NOTE: Typically 2 L will suffice for experiments described in this article, but this volume may need to be increased or reduced based on the length of the experiment, number of myograph chambers, and number buffer replacements (relative to treatment additions).
	<ol>
		<li>Prior to the gassing step (step 2.1.3), add 9.1 mg (per L of buffer being prepared) of desipramine-HCl to buffer.</li>
		<li>Prepare a 1.0 &#956;M solution of propranolol-HCl and add 1 ml (per L of buffer being prepared) of this solution to the Krebs-Henseleit buffer solution. Make this buffer on the day of use and keep at myograph operating temperatures (a temperature that yields a 37.5 &#176;C temperature in the myograph). 
		NOTE: The desipramine is added to inhibit the biogenic amine reuptake mechanisms and allow clearing of experimental additions from the buffer bathing the blood vessels to occur more rapidly. The addition of propranolol prevents the non-specific binding of treatment compounds to &#946;-adrenergic receptors.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
3. Collection and Preparation of Vasculature
<ol>
	<li>As soon as possible, remove the gastrointestinal tract from the carcass. Once the animal no longer exhibits any involuntary reflex, remove the head and hide and then raise the carcass vertically. Removal of the gastrointestinal viscera (esophagus to anus) from the carcass should be completed by approved abattoir personnel (&#60;20 min from time of stunning). 
	NOTE: How soon, is generally limited by the location/facility where the intestinal tract is being collected from and standard operating procedures or federally mandated procedures followed by the facility personnel.
	<ol>
		<li>In most facilities, conduct manipulations of the gastrointestinal tract at a separate location from the processing of the carcass that is destined to enter the food supply. Use a nearby convenient location where the gastrointestinal tract can be taken and spread out for examination.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Once the gastrointestinal tract is spread out, identify the small intestine, the ileocecal fold connecting the small intestine to cecum, and the ileal flange extending proximal to the ileocecal fold (Figure 1A).
	<ol>
		<li>Using a scalpel or knife, very lightly make an incision in the mesenteric membrane in the center of the ileal flange. Using two index fingers, bluntly dissect away the fat and connective tissue exposing the mesenteric vasculature (Figure 1B).</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>From this flange or bulge in the intestinal mesentery, dissect out multiple branches (~2 cm in length) of the exposed mesenteric artery and vein bundles that support this portion of the ileum (Figure 1C).
	<ol>
		<li>If using forceps to grasp tissue, take care to not grasp directly or pull on the blood vessels at all while removing them as any sort of stretching can damage and negatively effect tissue performance14. Blood vessel removal is best done, by cutting across each end of the section to be removed and then cutting alongside or parallel to the now isolated section. For ease, remove some of the surrounding tissue along with vessels to provide some tissue to grasp with a pair of forceps.</li>
		<li>With a pair of forceps, submerge tissue sample in a tube containing ice cold Krebs-Henseleit buffer and store on ice until processing can occur in the laboratory.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Place tissue sample on a cutting surface or in a petri dish and partially submerge in ice cold Krebs-Henseleit.
	<ol>
		<li>Using #5 jewelers forceps, Noyes iris scissors, and magnifying lamp or dissecting scope (2.5 to 5.0X magnification is sufficient), carefully dissect away the surrounding fat and connective tissues and separate the artery and vein. Identifying the vessel opening at one end of the section and carefully grasp the fascia surrounding the vessel with the forceps.</li>
		<li>Make a cut with the scissors parallel to the vessel by sliding the tip of the scissor underneath the raised fascia. After the initial incision, the fat and connective tissues can be further detached from the vessel by cutting down either side with the scissors. Ensure that the vessels are as clean as possible while minimizing the amount of time the vessels spend on the bench.</li>
		<li>Return blood vessels to tubes of fresh Krebs-Henseleit buffer and store at 4 &#176;C (samples can remain stored for up to 24 hr after collection and still produce valid contractility data).</li>
		<li>Using a razor blade, slice vessel to be used in myograph into desired number of 2-mm sections (it is helpful to use a tissue slicer to obtain consistent cross-sections).</li>
		<li>Examine each section under a dissecting scope (12.5X magnification) to ensure that each section has no abnormalities, branches, valves, or superficial damage inadvertently done during dissection and cleaning. Replace the vessel section if there is any abnormality, branch, valve, or superficial damage.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Store acceptable sliced vessel sections (submerged in Krebs-Henseleit buffer) on ice or at 4 &#176;C until ready for mounting in myograph chambers (usually &#60;30 min).</li>
	<li>Gently mount the vessel on the myograph by inserting the supports through the lumen and increase the tension (using the micropositioner on the myograph) being careful to not stretch the vessels above a 2 to 3 g reading.</li>
	<li>Once all chambers are covered, vacuum the buffer from all chambers and refill with 5.0 ml of buffer and start a 15 min timer to begin the equilibration period and the experiment.</li>
</ol>
4. Experiment
<ol>
	<li>Equilibrate all vessel sections for 1.5 hr to achieve a stable resting tension of 1.0 g.
	<ol>
		<li>Replace the Krebs-Henseleit incubation buffer every 15 min.</li>
		<li>During the equilibration, constantly adjust the tension on the blood vessel sections up to 2 g and then allow to relax down to approximately 0.80 g. Try not to allow vessels to relax too much (they may slip off the mounts). Try to achieve a steady baseline tension, where the vessel holds 1 g tension without requiring adjustment.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>During the equilibration, prepare an aqueous 1.32 M solution of KCl to be used as a reference.</li>
	<li>Following the completion of a satisfactory equilibration, add 500 &#956;l of the 1.32 M KCl solution to result in a 0.12 M solution in the 5.5 ml solution bathing the vessel.
	<ol>
		<li>Following the addition of the 1.32 M KCl, do not adjust the tension manually as the maximal response from this addition is used to evaluate tissue viability and can be used to normalize treatment data (e.g. concentration responses to an agonist).</li>
		<li>Replace the buffer in 15-min intervals until tension has returned to the baseline value of 1.0 g.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Once baseline is reached, change the buffer and simultaneously begin a 1 min timer. Do this for all chambers simultaneously to avoid a staggering of start times.
	<ol>
		<li>Vortex the standard to be added and prepare a comment for chamber 1 during the 1 min countdown.</li>
		<li>Add the standards in 25 &#956;l aliquots to each chamber as the experiment dictates (this keeps the treatment below 0.5% of the total volume).</li>
		<li>When the last standard has been added, start a 9 min timer.</li>
		<li>At the end of the 9 min standard incubation, remove the treatment-containing buffer from the chambers and add 5.0 ml of fresh buffer, and start the 2.5 min timer.</li>
		<li>Repeat step 4.4.4.</li>
		<li>At the end of the second 2.5 min rinse, vacuum the chambers and add fresh buffer, and start a 1 min timer to countdown the commencement of the second standard addition.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Continue this cycle for all of the day&#8217;s standard additions.</li>
	<li>During the final standard addition and subsequent 9 min incubation prepare the 1.32 M KCl reference compound for an end of run reference dose addition of 500 &#956;l.</li>
	<li>Following the 1 min interval after the final treatment addition, add the KCl and start a 9 min timer. 
	NOTE: The KCl addition is to confirm tissue viability at the conclusion of the experiment and is helpful if administering a treatment that results in negligible response.</li>
	<li>At the conclusion of the final 9 min reference compound incubation, vacuum or remove buffer from all of the chambers. Do not add fresh buffer. Conclude the experiment.</li>
	<li>Save Chart file, remove blood vessel sections and dispose of properly, and follow the clean up protocol (provided by manufacturer and can be lab specific) for myograph equipment.</li>
</ol>

<ol>
	<li>Matheson, P. J., Wilson, M. A., Garrison, R. N. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Regulation+of+intestinal+blood+flow.">Regulation of intestinal blood flow.</a> The Journal of surgical research. 93, 182-196 (2000).</li><li>Dobson, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Blood+flow+and+absorption+from+the+rumen.">Blood flow and absorption from the rumen.</a> Quarterly journal of experimental physiology. 69, 599-606 (1984).</li><li>Mulvany, M. J., Halpern, W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mechanical+properties+of+vascular+smooth+muscle+cells+in+situ.">Mechanical properties of vascular smooth muscle cells in situ.</a> Nature. 260, 617-619 (1976).</li><li>Nielsen-Kudsk, F., Poulsen, B., Ryom, C., Nielsen-Kudsk, J. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+strain-gauge+myograph+for+isometric+measurements+of+tension+in+isolated+small+blood+vessels+and+other+muscle+preparations.">A strain-gauge myograph for isometric measurements of tension in isolated small blood vessels and other muscle preparations.</a> Journal of pharmacological. 16, 215-225 (1986).</li><li>Mulvany, M. J., Aalkjaer, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Structure+and+function+of+small+arteries.">Structure and function of small arteries.</a> Physiological reviews. 70, 921-961 (1990).</li><li>Klotz, J. L., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Assessment+of+vasoconstrictive+potential+of+D-lysergic+acid+using+an+isolated+bovine+lateral+saphenous+vein+bioassay.">Assessment of vasoconstrictive potential of D-lysergic acid using an isolated bovine lateral saphenous vein bioassay.</a> Journal of animal science. 84, 3167-3175 (2006).</li><li>Klotz, J. L., Bush, L. P., Strickland, J. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+vascular+contractility+bioassay+using+bovine+right+ruminal+artery+and+vein.">A vascular contractility bioassay using bovine right ruminal artery and vein.</a> Journal of animal science. 89, 1944-1951 (2011).</li><li>Westendorf, M. L., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=In+vitro+and+in+vivo+ruminal+and+physiological+responses+to+endophyte-infected+tall+fescue.">In vitro and in vivo ruminal and physiological responses to endophyte-infected tall fescue.</a> Journal of dairy science. 76, 555-563 (1993).</li><li>Strickland, J. R., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Board-invited+review:+St.+Anthony&amp;#34;s+Fire+in+livestock:+causes,+mechanisms,+and+potential+solutions.">Board-invited review: St. Anthony&amp;#34;s Fire in livestock: causes, mechanisms, and potential solutions.</a> Journal of animal science. 89, 1603-1626 (2011).</li><li>Eckert, H., Kiechel, J. R., Rosenthaler, J., Schmidt, R., Schreier, E., B, B. e. r. d. e., HO, S. c. h. i. l. d. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Ch.+11.">Ch. 11.</a> Ergot Alkaloids and Related Compounds. , (1978).</li><li>Rhodes, M. T., Paterson, J. A., Kerley, M. S., Garner, H. E., Laughlin, M. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Reduced+blood+flow+to+peripheral+and+core+body+tissues+in+sheep+and+cattle+induced+by+endophyte-infected+tall+fescue.">Reduced blood flow to peripheral and core body tissues in sheep and cattle induced by endophyte-infected tall fescue.</a> Journal of animal science. 69, 2033-2043 (1991).</li><li>Foote, A. P., Harmon, D. L., Strickland, J. R., Bush, L. P., Klotz, J. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Effect+of+ergot+alkaloids+on+contractility+of+bovine+right+ruminal+artery+and+vein.">Effect of ergot alkaloids on contractility of bovine right ruminal artery and vein.</a> Journal of animal science. 89, 2944-2949 (2011).</li><li>Foote, A. P., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Ergot+alkaloids+from+endophyte-infected+tall+fescue+decrease+reticuloruminal+epithelial+blood+flow+and+volatile+fatty+acid+absorption+from+the+washed+reticulorumen.">Ergot alkaloids from endophyte-infected tall fescue decrease reticuloruminal epithelial blood flow and volatile fatty acid absorption from the washed reticulorumen.</a> Journal of animal science. 91, 5366-5378 (2013).</li><li>Hocking, K. M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Detrimental+effects+of+mechanical+stretch+on+smooth+muscle+function+in+saphenous+veins.">Detrimental effects of mechanical stretch on smooth muscle function in saphenous veins.</a> Journal of vascular surgery. 53, 454-460 (2011).</li><li>Smith, D. F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Bovine+intestinal+surgery.">Bovine intestinal surgery.</a> Modern veterinary practice. 65, 705-710 (1984).</li><li>Budras, K. D., Habel, R. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Bovine Anatomy An Illustrated Text. , (2003).</li><li>Klotz, J. L., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Antagonism+of+lateral+saphenous+vein+serotonin+receptors+from+steers+grazing+endophyte-free,+wild-type,+or+novel+endophyte-infected+tall+fescue.">Antagonism of lateral saphenous vein serotonin receptors from steers grazing endophyte-free, wild-type, or novel endophyte-infected tall fescue.</a> Journal of animal science. 91, 4492-4500 (2013).</li><li>Egert, A. M., Kim, D. H., Schrick, F. N., Harmon, D. L., Klotz, J. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Dietary+exposure+to+ergot+alkaloids+decreases+contractility+of+bovine+mesenteric+vasculature.">Dietary exposure to ergot alkaloids decreases contractility of bovine mesenteric vasculature.</a> Journal of animal science. 92, 1768-1779 (2014).</li></ol>

Mention of trade name, proprietary product, or specified equipment does not constitute a guarantee or warranty by the USDA and does not imply approval to the exclusion of other products that may be available.

The initial challenge in the development of this bioassay was the establishment of a repeatable collection site for mesenteric vasculature. Sample site consistency is critical, as some of the functions of the small intestine change during the progression from the jejunum through the ileum and consequently the mesentery vary in a similar pattern. The ileal branches of mesenteric artery and vein were the most easily identified through anatomic landmarks. By locating the cecum and following the ileocecal fold to its terminu...

Alterations in blood flow to a tissue bed can have a large impact on organ function. A primary function of the small intestine is nutrient absorption. Arterial blood flow to the absorptive surface of the gut is required for nutrient absorption and blood flow increases to aid in nutrient absorption as digesta moves along the surface1. A decrease in blood flow can cause a reduction in nutrient absorption due to a decrease in the transepithelial gradient2. In addition to nutrients, the small intestine can also be exposed to secondary metabolites, drugs, or toxins that exert an effect on localized blood flow in the mesentery. In the case of the ruminant animal, compounds can be liberated from a feedstuff (e.g., nutrients such as amino acids, or toxins such as ergot alkaloids) through fermentative processes of the foregut. If these compounds survive the microbial metabolism of ruminal fermentation, they are now available for absorption or interaction as they travel through the gastrointestinal tract of the animal.
There are a number of different methods available to measure blood flow in vivo (e.g., Doppler ultrasound, indwelling blood flowmeters, radiolabeled microspheres, and indicator-dilution techniques) that permit evaluation of various experimental scenarios or treatments. However, to obtain information regarding the mechanical or pharmacological properties of vascular smooth muscle, methods remained limited to large vessels until Mulvany and Halpern3 published an article describing a technique using wire mounted vascular ring preparations in a myograph. Since the development of this technique, modifications continue to be made to the associated myograph systems that permit a variety of different applications for evaluation of tubular structures. The system has also been adapted to utilize fixed rods for mounting larger vessels4 where perfusion techniques are not desired.
Because of dissimilarities in vessels from different anatomical origins and distinctions in the same vessels from different species of animal, data from vessel and animal type cannot easily be extrapolated across different vessels or the same vessel in different animal types5. Consequently, separate bioassays must be developed and validated anytime these aspects are changed. Recently several bioassays have been developed with these technologies for use in cattle lateral saphenous vein and right ruminal artery and vein6,7.
This bioassay was developed to specifically investigate the effects that ergot alkaloids have on vasculature supporting the small intestine. It was reported that 50-60% of fed alkaloids appear in abomasal contents, but only 5% are recovered in feces8. Strickland et al.9 stated in a review of ergot alkaloids, that available data suggest that the small intestine may be the most important site for ergopeptine absorption. Eckert et al.10 reviewed biopharmaceutical aspects of ergot alkaloids and stated that once they cross the epithelial barrier, ergot alkaloids are transported either by lymphatic system to the subclavian vein or via mesenteric vein and into portal blood. Rhodes et al.11 reported a decrease in blood flow to duodenum and colon in steers consuming a high endophyte-infected (high ergot alkaloid) diet. Using the right ruminal artery and vein bioassay, Foote et al.12 demonstrated that ergot alkaloids are vasoactive in ruminal vasculature. Foote et al.13 subsequently demonstrated in vivo that ruminal exposure to ergot alkaloids results in a decreased rumen epithelial blood flow. This decrease in blood flow to the absorptive surface of the rumen concomitantly caused a reduction in nutrient (volatile fatty acid) flux. Given the quantity of ergot alkaloids passing on to the small intestine from the foregut; it was hypothesized that a similar effect on small intestinal vasculature and nutrient absorption would occur. This necessitated the development of the bovine proximal ileal mesenteric artery and vein bioassay.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="611">
	<tbody>
		<tr height="64">
			<td height="64" style="height:64px;width:105px;">Name of the Material/Equipment</td>
			<td style="width:127px;">Company</td>
			<td style="width:120px;">Catalog Number</td>
			<td style="width:259px;">Comment/Description (optional)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="85">
			<td height="85" style="height:85px;width:105px;">Multi Myograph</td>
			<td style="width:127px;">Danish Myo Technologies</td>
			<td style="width:120px;">610M</td>
			<td style="width:259px;">A myograph is critical to this bioassay, but there are other platforms available for use that will suffice.&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="22">
			<td height="22" style="height:22px;width:105px;">Powerlab 8/sp</td>
			<td style="width:127px;">ADIntruments</td>
			<td style="width:120px;">ML785</td>
			<td style="width:259px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="22">
			<td height="22" style="height:22px;width:105px;">LabChart 7</td>
			<td style="width:127px;">ADInstruments</td>
			<td style="width:120px;">Version 7</td>
			<td style="width:259px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="43">
			<td height="43" style="height:43px;width:105px;">Force Calibration Kit</td>
			<td style="width:127px;">Danish Myo Technologies</td>
			<td style="width:120px;">100055</td>
			<td style="width:259px;">Specific to DMT myographs</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="43">
			<td height="43" style="height:43px;width:105px;">Bottle-top Filter</td>
			<td style="width:127px;">Nalgene</td>
			<td style="width:120px;">595-4520</td>
			<td style="width:259px;">0.22 um pore size; 45 mm neck size</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="43">
			<td height="43" style="height:43px;width:105px;">#5 Jewler&#8217;s Forceps</td>
			<td style="width:127px;">Miltex</td>
			<td style="width:120px;">555008FT</td>
			<td style="width:259px;">Any brand of forceps can be used</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="43">
			<td height="43" style="height:43px;width:105px;">Noyes Iris Scissors</td>
			<td style="width:127px;">Miltex</td>
			<td style="width:120px;">18-1510</td>
			<td style="width:259px;">Any brand of scissors can be used</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="43">
			<td height="43" style="height:43px;width:105px;">Dissecting Scope</td>
			<td style="width:127px;">Zeiss</td>
			<td style="width:120px;">Stemi 2000-C</td>
			<td style="width:259px;">Any brand of dissecting light microscope will suffice</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="85">
			<td height="85" style="height:85px;width:105px;">Adjustable Tissue Matrice</td>
			<td style="width:127px;">Braintree Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:120px;">TM C12</td>
			<td style="width:259px;">This is not critical to the assay, but greatly reduces section to section variation in length and speeds up the slicing process greatly</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="43">
			<td height="43" style="height:43px;width:105px;">Krebs-Hensleit Buffer</td>
			<td style="width:127px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:120px;">K3753-10x1L</td>
			<td style="width:259px;">It is not necessary to buy Krebs, this can be made in house</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="64">
			<td height="64" style="height:64px;width:105px;">Calcium chloride dehydrate</td>
			<td style="width:127px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:120px;">C7902-500G</td>
			<td style="width:259px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="43">
			<td height="43" style="height:43px;width:105px;">Sodium bicarbonate</td>
			<td style="width:127px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:120px;">S5761-500G</td>
			<td style="width:259px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="43">
			<td height="43" style="height:43px;width:105px;">Desipramine-HCl</td>
			<td style="width:127px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:120px;">D3900-5G</td>
			<td style="width:259px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="43">
			<td height="43" style="height:43px;width:105px;">Propranolol-HCl</td>
			<td style="width:127px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:120px;">P0884-1G</td>
			<td style="width:259px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="22">
			<td height="22" style="height:22px;width:105px;">KCl</td>
			<td style="width:127px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:120px;">P9333-500G</td>
			<td style="width:259px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="51">
			<td height="51" style="height:51px;width:105px;">95% O2/5% CO2</td>
			<td style="width:127px;">Scott Gross</td>
			<td style="width:120px;">UN3156</td>
			<td style="width:259px;"></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

isolating and using sections of bovine mesenteric artery and vein as a bioassay to test for vasoactivity in the small intestine

Mammalian gastrointestinal systems are constantly exposed to compounds (desirable and undesirable) that can have an effect on blood flow to and from that system. Changes in blood flow to the small intestine can result in effects on the absorptive functions of the organ. Particular interest in toxins liberated from feedstuffs through fermentative and digestive processes has developed in ruminants as an area where productive efficiencies could be improved. The video associated with this article describes an in vitro bioassay developed to screen compounds for vasoactivity in isolated cross-sections of bovine mesenteric artery and vein using a multimyograph. Once the blood vessels are mounted and equilibrated in the myograph, the bioassay itself can be used: as a screening tool to evaluate the contractile response or vasoactivity of compounds of interest; determine the presence of receptor types by pharmacologically targeting receptors with specific agonists; determine the role of a receptor with the presence of one or more antagonists; or determine potential interactions of compounds of interest with antagonists. Through all of this, data are collected real-time, tissue collected from a single animal can be exposed to a large number of different experimental treatments (an in vitro advantage), and represents vasculature on either side of the capillary bed to provide an accurate picture of what could be happening in the afferent and efferent blood supply supporting the small intestine.

The blood vessels used to generate the included results were collected from 6 Holstein steers (425 &#177; 8 kg) within a 3 week interval. An example of a typical mesenteric vein contractile response to KCl and treatment additions increasing in concentration is presented in Figure 2. The magnitude of response will vary some with the size of the vessel (correlated with the size of the donor animal), but can also be influenced (negatively) by improper handling (stretching) of the vessels during collection a...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Isolating and Using Sections of Bovine Mesenteric Artery and Vein as a Bioassay to Test for Vasoactivity in the Small Intestine at JoVE.com

Isolating and Using Sections of Bovine Mesenteric Artery and Vein as a Bioassay to Test for Vasoactivity in the Small Intestine

The small intestine is frequently exposed to toxins that can influence blood flow and negatively impact nutrient absorption. Using a multimyograph and mesenteric artery and vein isolates, compounds or toxins of interest can be screened for vasoactivity.

Mammalian gastrointestinal systems are constantly exposed to compounds (desirable and undesirable) that can have an effect on blood flow to and from that ...

isolating-using-sections-bovine-mesenteric-artery-vein-as-bioassay-to

Research

JoVE Journal

Medicine

9.6K Views.  USDA-Agricultural Research Service.  L'intestino tenue è spesso esposto alle tossine che possono influenzare il flusso di sangue e di influenzare negativamente l'assorbimento dei nutrienti. Utilizzando un multimyograph e mesenterica arteria e vena isolati, composti o tossine di interesse possono essere sottoposti a screening per vasoactivity. 

Video: Isolating and Using Sections of Bovine Mesenteric Artery and Vein as a Bioassay to Test for Vasoactivity in the Small Intestine

A Strategy to Identify de Novo Mutations in Common Disorders such as Autism and Schizophrenia

There are several lines of evidence supporting the role of de novo mutations as a mechanism for common disorders, such as autism and schizophrenia. First, the de novo mutation rate in humans is relatively high, so new mutations are generated at a high frequency in the population. However, de novo mutations have not been reported in most common diseases. Mutations in genes leading to severe diseases where there is a strong negative selection against the phenotype, such as lethality in embryonic stages or reduced reproductive fitness, will not be transmitted to multiple family members, and therefore will not be detected by linkage gene mapping or association studies. The observation of very high concordance in monozygotic twins and very low concordance in dizygotic twins also strongly supports the hypothesis that a significant fraction of cases may result from new mutations. Such is the case for diseases such as autism and schizophrenia. Second, despite reduced reproductive fitness1 and extremely variable environmental factors, the incidence of some diseases is maintained worldwide at a relatively high and constant rate. This is the case for autism and schizophrenia, with an incidence of approximately 1% worldwide. Mutational load can be thought of as a balance between selection for or against a deleterious mutation and its production by de novo mutation. Lower rates of reproduction constitute a negative selection factor that should reduce the number of mutant alleles in the population, ultimately leading to decreased disease prevalence. These selective pressures tend to be of different intensity in different environments. Nonetheless, these severe mental disorders have been maintained at a constant relatively high prevalence in the worldwide population across a wide range of cultures and countries despite a strong negative selection against them2. This is not what one would predict in diseases with reduced reproductive fitness, unless there was a high new mutation rate. Finally, the effects of paternal age: there is a significantly increased risk of the disease with increasing paternal age, which could result from the age related increase in paternal de novo mutations. This is the case for autism and schizophrenia3. The male-to-female ratio of mutation rate is estimated at about 4&#x2013;6:1, presumably due to a higher number of germ-cell divisions with age in males. Therefore, one would predict that de novo mutations would more frequently come from males, particularly older males4. A high rate of new mutations may in part explain why genetic studies have so far failed to identify many genes predisposing to complexes diseases genes, such as autism and schizophrenia, and why diseases have been identified for a mere 3% of genes in the human genome. Identification for de novo mutations as a cause of a disease requires a targeted molecular approach, which includes studying parents and affected subjects. The process for determining if the genetic basis of a disease may result in part from de novo mutations and the molecular approach to establish this link will be illustrated, using autism and schizophrenia as examples.

Molecular genetic strategy for finding de novo mutations causing common disorders such as autism and schizophrenia.

There are several lines of evidence supporting the role of de novo mutations as a mechanism for common disorders, such as autism and schizophrenia. First, ...

Mesenteric Artery Contraction and Relaxation Studies Using Automated Wire Myography

Proximal resistance vessels, such as the mesenteric arteries, contribute substantially to the peripheral resistance. These small vessels of between 100-400 &mu;m in diameter function primarily in directing blood flow to various organs according to the overall requirements of the body. The rat mesenteric artery has a diameter greater than 100 &mu;m. The myography technique, first described by Mulvay and Halpern1, was based on the method proposed by Bevan and Osher2. The technique provides information about small vessels under isometric conditions, where substantial shortening of the muscle preparation is prevented. Since force production and sensitivity of vessels to different agonists is dependent on the extent of stretch, according to active tension-length relation, it is essential to conduct contraction studies under isometric conditions to prevent compliance of the mounting wires. Stainless steel wires are preferred to tungsten wires because of oxidation of the latter, which affects recorded responses3.The technique allows for the comparison of agonist-induced contractions of mounted vessels to obtain evidence for normal function of vascular smooth muscle cell receptors.
We have shown in several studies that isolated mesenteric arteries that are contracted with phenylyephrine relax upon addition of cumulative concentrations of extracellular calcium (Ca2+e). The findings led us to conclude that perivascular sensory nerves, which express the G protein-coupled Ca2+-sensing receptor (CaR), mediate this vasorelaxation response. Using an automated wire myography method, we show here that mesenteric arteries from Wistar, Dahl salt-sensitive(DS) and Dahl salt-resistant (DR) rats respond differently to Ca2+e. Tissues from Wistar rats showed higher Ca2+-sensitivity compared to those from DR and DS. Reduced CaR expression in mesenteric arteries from DS rats correlates with reduced Ca2+e-induced relaxation of isolated, pre-contracted arteries. The data suggest that the CaR is required for relaxation of mesenteric arteries under increased adrenergic tone, as occurs in hypertension, and indicate an inherent defect in the CaR signaling pathway in Dahl animals, which is much more severe in DS.
The method is useful in determining vascular reactivity ex vivo in mesenteric resistance arteries and similar small blood vessels and comparisons between different agonists and/or antagonists can be easily and consistently assessed side-by-side6,7,8.

An automated myography method for force measurements in isolated mesenteric arteries is described. It employs a Mulvany-Halpern Auto Dual Wire Myograph 510A to determine responses to phenylephrine and extracellular calcium. The method allows consistent determination of isometric responses to agonists in small vessels of diameters of 60 - 300 &mu;m, independently.

Proximal resistance vessels, such as the mesenteric arteries, contribute substantially to the peripheral resistance. These small vessels of between ...

Adult Mouse Venous Hypertension Model: Common Carotid Artery to External Jugular Vein Anastomosis.

The understanding of the pathophysiology of brain arteriovenous malformations and arteriovenous fistulas has improved thanks to animal models. A rat model creating an artificial fistula between the common carotid artery (CCA) and the external jugular vein (EJV) has been widely described and proved technically feasible. This construct provokes a consistent cerebral venous hypertension (CVH), and therefore has helped studying the contribution of venous hypertension to formation, clinical symptoms, and prognosis of brain AVMs and dural AVFs. Equivalent mice models have been only scarcely described and have shown trouble with stenosis of the fistula. An established murine model would allow the study of not only pathophysiology but also potential genetic therapies for these cerebrovascular diseases.
We present a model of arteriovenous fistula that produces a durable intracranial venous hypertension in the mouse. Microsurgical anastomosis of the murine CCA and EJV can be difficult due to diminutive anatomy and frequently result in a non-patent fistula. In this step-by-step protocol we address all the important challenges encountered during this procedure. Avoiding excessive retraction of the vein during the exposure, using 11-0 sutures instead of 10-0, and making a carefully planned end-to-side anastomosis are some of the critical steps. Although this method requires advanced microsurgical skills and a longer learning curve that the equivalent in the rat, it can be consistently developed.
This novel model has been designed to integrate transgenic mouse techniques with a previously well-established experimental system that has proved useful to study brain AVMs and dural AVFs. By opening the possibility of using transgenic mice, a broader spectrum of valid models can be achieved and genetic treatments can also be tested. The experimental construct could also be further adapted to the study of other cerebrovascular diseases related with venous hypertension such as migraine, transient global amnesia, transient monocular blindness, etc.

We describe a method for creating a reliable model of cerebral venous hypertension in the adult mouse. This model has been widely described and tested in the rat. This new counterpart in the mice opens the possibility of using genetic modified animals and thereby broadens the applications of the model.

The understanding of the pathophysiology of brain arteriovenous malformations and arteriovenous fistulas has improved thanks to animal models. A rat model ...

Assessing Myogenic Response and Vasoactivity In Resistance Mesenteric Arteries Using Pressure Myography

Small resistance arteries constrict and dilate respectively in response to increased or decreased intraluminal pressure; this phenomenon known as myogenic response is a key regulator of local blood flow. In isobaric conditions small resistance arteries develop sustained constriction known as myogenic tone (MT), which is a major determinant of systemic vascular resistance (SVR). Hence, ex vivo&#160;pressurized preparations of small resistance arteries are major tools to study microvascular function in near-physiological states. To achieve this, a freshly isolated intact segment of a small resistance artery (diameter ~260 &#956;m) is mounted onto two small glass cannulas and pressurized. These arterial preparations retain most in vivo characteristics and permit assessment of vascular tone in real-time. Here we provide a detailed protocol for assessing vasoactivity in pressurized small resistance mesenteric arteries from rats; these arteries develop sustained vasoconstriction - approximately 25% of maximal diameter - when pressurized at 70 mmHg. These arterial preparations may be used to study the effect of investigational compounds on relationship between intra-arterial pressure and vasoactivity and determine changes in microvascular function in animal models of various diseases.

Pressure myography is used to assess vasoactivity of small arteries that develop sustained constriction when pressurized. This manuscript provides a detailed protocol to assess in isolated segments of small mesenteric arteries from rats, vasoactivity and the effect of intraluminal pressure on vascular diameter.

Small resistance arteries constrict and dilate respectively in response to increased or decreased intraluminal pressure; this phenomenon known as myogenic ...

Catheterization of the Carotid Artery and Jugular Vein to Perform Hemodynamic Measures, Infusions and Blood Sampling in a Conscious Rat Model

The success of a small animal model to study critical illness is, in part, dependent on the ability of the model to simulate the human condition. Intra-tracheal inoculation of a known amount of bacteria has been successfully used to reproduce the pathogenesis of pneumonia which then develops into sepsis. Monitoring hemodynamic parameters and providing standard clinical treatment including infusion of antibiotics, fluids and drugs to maintain blood pressure is critical to simulate routine supportive care in this model but to do so requires both arterial and venous vascular access. The video details the surgical technique for implanting carotid artery and common jugular vein catheters in an anesthetized rat. Following a 72 hr recovery period, the animals will be re-anesthetized and connected to a tether and swivel setup attached to the rodent housing which connects the implanted catheters to the hemodynamic monitoring system. This setup allows free movement of the rat during the study while continuously monitoring pressures, infusing fluids and drugs (antibiotics, vasopressors) and performing blood sampling.

Vascular accesses to measure hemodynamics, provide fluids and perform blood sampling are important to any small animal model study. We present a technique for implanting catheters into the carotid artery and the common jugular vein in an anesthetized rat for connecting to a system to perform monitoring, infusions and sampling.

The success of a small animal model to study critical illness is, in part, dependent on the ability of the model to simulate the human condition. ...

Carotid Artery Infusions for Pharmacokinetic and Pharmacodynamic Analysis of Taxanes in Mice

When proposing the use of a drug, drug combination, or drug delivery into a novel system, one must assess the pharmacokinetics of the drug in the study model. As the use of mouse models are often a vital step in preclinical drug discovery and drug development1-8, it is necessary to design a system to introduce drugs into mice in a uniform, reproducible manner. Ideally, the system should permit the collection of blood samples at regular intervals over a set time course. The ability to measure drug concentrations by mass-spectrometry, has allowed investigators to follow the changes in plasma drug levels over time in individual mice1, 9, 10. In this study, paclitaxel was introduced into transgenic mice as a continuous arterial infusion over three hours, while blood samples were simultaneously taken by retro-orbital bleeds at set time points. Carotid artery infusions are a potential alternative to jugular vein infusions, when factors such as mammary tumors or other obstructions make jugular infusions impractical. Using this technique, paclitaxel concentrations in plasma and tissue achieved similar levels as compared to jugular infusion. In this tutorial, we will demonstrate how to successfully catheterize the carotid artery by preparing an optimized catheter for the individual mouse model, then show how to insert and secure the catheter into the mouse carotid artery, thread the end of the catheter out through the back of the mouse&#8217;s neck, and hook the mouse to a pump to deliver a controlled rate of drug influx. Multiple low volume retro-orbital bleeds allow for analysis of plasma drug concentrations over time.

This method was developed with the goal of delivering a steady drug solution via the carotid artery, to assess the pharmacokinetics of novel drugs in mouse models.

When proposing the use of a drug, drug combination, or drug delivery into a novel system, one must assess the pharmacokinetics of the drug in the study ...

A Simple Device to Rapidly Prepare Whole Mounts of the Mouse Intestine

Preparing whole mounts of the mouse small intestine and colon for subsequent analysis or quantification can be time consuming and difficult. We describe the use of a simple device to cut and &#8216;roll&#8217; mouse intestines to rapidly prepare whole mount preparations of superior and uniform quality to that which can be achieved by hand. The device comprises a base that holds 4 stainless steel rods and a top, which acts a cutting guide. The rods are inserted into the lumen of the small intestine [divided into thirds] and the colon. The rods and samples are then placed over a piece of filter paper or card into the holding slots in the base of the device. The top of the device is then positioned and serves as a cutting guide. The two angled sections in the center of the top piece are used to guide a knife or scalpel and cut the intestines longitudinally on the top of the rods. Once the intestinal sections have been cut, the top is removed and the card,&#160;tissue and rods gently removed from the device and placed on the bench. The rods are then gently rolled sideways to flatten and stick the intestinal segments onto the underlying piece of filter paper or card. The final preparation can then be examined or fixed and stored for later analysis. The preparations are invaluable for the study of intestinal changes in normal or genetically modified mouse models. The preparations have been used for the study and quantification of the effects of inflammation (colitis), damage, pre-cancerous lesions (aberrant crypt foci (ACFs) and mucin depleted foci (MDFs)) and polyps or tumors.

The use of a simple device to cut and &#8216;roll&#8217; mouse intestines to rapidly prepare whole mount preparations is described.

Preparing whole mounts of the mouse small intestine and colon for subsequent analysis or quantification can be time consuming and difficult. We describe ...

A Rabbit Model of Durable Transgene Expression in Jugular Vein to Common Carotid Artery Interposition Grafts

Vein graft bypass surgery is a common treatment for occlusive arterial disease; however, long-term success is limited by graft failure due to thrombosis, intimal hyperplasia, and atherosclerosis. The goal of this article is to demonstrate a method for placing bilateral venous interposition grafts in a rabbit, then transducing the grafts with a gene transfer vector that achieves durable transgene expression. The method allows the investigation of the biological roles of genes and their protein products in normal vein graft homeostasis. It also allows the testing of transgenes for the activities that could prevent vein graft failure, e.g., whether the expression of a transgene prevents the neointimal growth, reduces the vascular inflammation, or reduces atherosclerosis in rabbits fed with a high-fat diet. During an initial survival surgery, the segments of right and left external jugular vein are excised and placed bilaterally as reversed end-to-side common carotid artery interposition grafts. During a second survival surgery, performed 28 days later, each of the grafts is isolated from the circulation with vascular clips and the lumens are filled (via an arteriotomy) with a solution containing a helper-dependent adenoviral (HDAd) vector. After a 20-min incubation, the vector solution is aspirated, the arteriotomy is repaired, and flow is restored. The veins are harvested at time points dictated by individual experimental protocols. The 28-day delay between the graft placement and the transduction is necessary to ensure the adaptation of the vein graft to the arterial circulation. This adaptation avoids rapid loss of transgene expression that occurs in vein grafts transduced before or immediately after grafting. The method is unique in its ability to achieve durable, stable transgene expression in grafted veins. Compared to other large animal vein graft models, rabbits have advantages of low cost and easy handling. Compared to rodent vein graft models, rabbits have larger and easier-to-manipulate blood vessels that provide abundant tissue for analysis.

This method describes the placement of interposition vein grafts in rabbits, the transduction of the grafts, and the achievement of durable transgene expression. This allows the investigation of physiological and pathological roles of transgenes and their protein products in grafted veins, and testing of gene therapies for vein graft disease.

Vein graft bypass surgery is a common treatment for occlusive arterial disease; however, long-term success is limited by graft failure due to thrombosis, ...

Isometric Contractility Measurement of the Mouse Mesenteric Artery Using Wire Myography

The wire myograph technique is used to assess the contractility of vascular smooth muscles in response to depolarization, GPCR agonists/inhibitors and drugs. It is widely used in many studies on the physiological functions of vascular smooth muscle, the pathogenesis of vascular diseases such as hypertension, and the development of smooth muscle relaxant drugs. The mouse is a widely used model animal with a large pool of disease models and genetically modified strains. We introduced this method to measure the isometric contraction of mouse mesenteric artery in detail. A 1.4-mm segment of mouse mesenteric resistance artery was isolated and mounted on a myograph chamber by passing two steel wires through its lumen. After equilibration and normalization steps, the vessel segment was potentiated by a high-K+ solution twice prior to the contraction assay. As an example of the application of this method in drug development, we measured the relaxant effect of a novel natural substance, neoliensinine, isolated from a Chinese herb, embryos of the lotus seed (Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn.) on mouse mesenteric arteries. The vessel segments mounted on the myograph chamber were stimulated with a high-K+ solution. When the force tension reached a stable sustained phase, cumulative doses of neoliensinine were added to the chamber. We found that neoliensinine had a dose-dependent relaxant effect on smooth muscle contraction, thus suggesting that it bears potential activity against hypertension. In addition, as the vessel segment can survive at least 4 hours after mounting and maintain contractility induced by the high-K+ solution for many times, we suggest that the wire myograph system may be used for the time-consuming process of drug screening.

The wire myograph technique is used to investigate vascular smooth muscle functions and screen new drugs. We report a detailed protocol for measuring the isometric contractility of the mouse mesenteric artery and for screening new relaxants of vascular smooth muscle.

The wire myograph technique is used to assess the contractility of vascular smooth muscles in response to depolarization, GPCR agonists/inhibitors and ...

Mechanisms Underlying Gut Hormone Secretion Using the Isolated Perfused Rat Small Intestine

The gut is the largest endocrine organ of the body, producing more than 15 different peptide hormones that regulate appetite and food intake, digestion, nutrient absorption and distribution, and post-prandial glucose excursions. Understanding the molecular mechanisms that regulate gut hormone secretion is fundamental for understanding and translating gut hormone physiology. Traditionally, the mechanisms underlying gut hormone secretion are either studied in vivo (in experimental animals or humans) or using gut hormone-secreting primary mucosal cell cultures or cell lines. Here, we introduce an isolated perfused rat small intestine as an alternative method for studying gut hormone secretion. The virtues of this model are that it relies on the intact gut, meaning that it recapitulates most of the physiologically important parameters responsible for the secretion in in vivo studies, including mucosal polarization, paracrine relationships and routes of perfusion/stimulus exposure. In addition, and unlike in vivo studies, the isolated perfused rat small intestine allows for almost complete experimental control and direct assessment of secretion. In contrast to in vitro studies, it is possible to study both the magnitude and the dynamics of secretion and to address important questions, such as what stimuli cause secretion of different gut hormones, from which side of the gut (luminal or vascular) is secretion stimulated, and to analyze in detail molecular sensors underlying the secretory response. In addition, the preparation is a powerful model for the study of intestinal absorption and details regarding the dynamics of intestinal absorption including the responsible transporters.

Here, we present a powerful and physiological model to study the molecular mechanisms underlying gut hormone secretion and intestinal absorption &#8212; the isolated perfused rat small intestine.

The gut is the largest endocrine organ of the body, producing more than 15 different peptide hormones that regulate appetite and food intake, digestion, ...