We thank Hongjae Sunwoo for helpful advice for oligonucleotide design in RNA FISH. We also thank Serenity Curtis for editing the manuscript. N.Y. was supported by a Postdoctoral Fellowship for Research Abroad of the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS). This work was supported by the NIH (RO1-GM102184), the March of Dimes Research Foundation (#6-FY12-337), and the Developmental Fund and Trustee Grant at Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center to Y.O.

1. Probe Preparation
<ol>
	<li>Obtain multiple unique oligonucleotides in Xist (20-30 nucleotide-length oligonucleotides, 63-65 &#186;C melting temperature, Table 1) with a 5&#8217;-amino modification and suspend in water.</li>
	<li>Pool equimolar amounts of oligonucleotides with 5&#8217;-amino modification (total 4.5 &#181;g) and label with amine-reactive fluorescent dye following the manufacturer&#8217;s instruction.
	<ol>
		<li>Dissolve the pooled oligonucleotides in final 5 &#181;l of nuclease-free water and add 3 &#181;l of 1 M sodium bicarbonate to the oligonucleotide solution.</li>
		<li>Add 2 &#181;l DMSO to the vial of amine-reactive dye and vortex briefly.</li>
		<li>Mix the oligonucleotide solution with the reactive dye in DMSO and incubate the mixture at room temperature for 1 hr in the dark.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Purify the fluorescently labeled oligonucleotide probes by G-25 column followed by ethanol precipitation.
	<ol>
		<li>Centrifuge G-25 column at 750 x g for 1 min to remove excess storage buffer.</li>
		<li>Add 40 &#181;l nuclease-free water to the labeling mixture produced in Step 1.2.3 and apply to the G-25 column. Centrifuge at 750 x g for 2 min.</li>
		<li>Add 50 &#181;l nuclease-free water, 10 &#181;l 3 M sodium acetate (pH 5.2) and 250 &#181;l ethanol to the purified probe from Step 1.3.2. Store at -80 &#176;C for 30 min and centrifuge at 21,000 x g for 15 min at 4 &#176;C.</li>
		<li>Wash the precipitated oligonucleotides once with 1 ml of 70% ethanol.</li>
		<li>Re-suspend in 50 &#181;l nuclease-free water or TE (10 mM Tris-HCl, pH 7.5; 1 mM EDTA) for a final concentration of approximately 10 &#181;M.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Dilute the fluorescently labeled oligonucleotide probes to a final concentration of 250 nM with hybridization buffer (10% formamide; 2x SSC [300 mM NaCl; 30 mM sodium citrate]; 2 mg/ml BSA; 10% dextran sulfate). 
	NOTE: With this quick FISH protocol, oligonucleotide probes in Xist were designed and used at a higher concentration than the normal FISH protocol using oligonucleotide probes in order to shorten the incubation time for hybridization.</li>
</ol>
2. Slide Preparation
NOTE: Slides can be prepared for immuno-FISH using mouse embryonic stem (ES) or embryoid body (EB) differentiating cells20,21 by either growing them directly on a poly-lysine-treated slide or using cytospin with cell suspension. Here, slide preparation by cytospin is shown.
<ol>
	<li>Aspirate the culture medium in a 6-well dish. Wash with PBS (room temperature), and aspirate thoroughly.</li>
	<li>Add 0.5 ml of trypsin to the 6-well dish, incubate for 5-10 min at 37 &#176;C.</li>
	<li>Add 5 ml of medium and disperse cells by gently pipetting up and down several times.</li>
	<li>Transfer cells to a 15 ml tube, centrifuge for 5 min at 200 x g at room temperature.</li>
	<li>Discard the medium and gently suspend the cells in 2 ml PBS.</li>
	<li>Count cells using hemocytometer, and dilute cell suspension at 4 x 105 cells/ml by PBS.</li>
	<li>Assemble a slide, a filter card and a chamber with a clip and place them into the appropriate slots in the rotor of the cytospin. Add 250 &#956;l of each sample prepared in step 2.6 into each chamber of the assembled units in the cytospin. Centrifuge at 1,500 rpm for 10 min at room temperature.</li>
	<li>Fill 3 coplin jars on ice with 40 ml each of ice-cold PBS, CSK buffer (10 mM PIPES, pH 6.8; 100 mM NaCl; 300 mM sucrose; 3 mM MgCl2), and CSKT buffer (CSK buffer with 0.5% Triton X-100), respectively.</li>
	<li>After the cytospin is finished, quickly transfer the slide into ice-cold PBS and incubate for 5 min.</li>
	<li>Transfer the slide into ice-cold CSK buffer and incubate for 1 min.</li>
	<li>Transfer the slide into ice-cold CSKT buffer and incubate for 5 min.</li>
	<li>Transfer the slide back into ice-cold CSK buffer and incubate for 1 min.</li>
	<li>Transfer the slide into 4% paraformaldehyde in PBS and incubate for 10 min at room temperature.</li>
</ol>
3. Immunofluorescence
<ol>
	<li>Place the slides in a coplin jar with PBST (1x PBS with 0.1% Tween-20) for several sec.</li>
	<li>Place the slides at a slant allowing remaining buffer to flow down the slide. Carefully wipe excess liquid off the slide and place it in an empty pipet-tip box with water. Overlay the slide with 40 &#956;l of blocking solution (1x PBS, 1% BSA, 0.1% Tween-20), gently place a coverslip, and incubate for 10 min at room temperature.</li>
	<li>Remove the coverslip, remove the blocking solution, and add 40 &#956;l of the Histone H3K27me3 primary antibody diluted to a concentration of 1:500 in blocking solution. Place the coverslip back on the slide and incubate for 30 min at room temperature. 
	NOTE: An RNase inhibitor in the blocking solution might be helpful to preserve RNA in this RNA FISH protocol when polyclonal antibodies are used.</li>
	<li>Wash slide 2 times in coplin jars filled with PBST, for 5 min each, gently shaking while washing.</li>
	<li>Place the slides at a slant allowing remaining buffer to flow down the slide. Carefully wipe excess liquid and place the slide back into the tip box. Overlay with 40 &#956;l of the secondary antibody (1:500) diluted in blocking solution, place a coverslip, and incubate for 15 min in the dark. For the following steps, keep the slide in the dark at all times.</li>
	<li>Wash 2 times in coplin jars with PBST as in step 3.4.</li>
</ol>
4. RNA FISH with Oligonucleotide Probes
<ol>
	<li>Pre-warm an empty pipet-tip box with water at the bottom to prevent slides from drying at 37 &#176;C for RNA FISH in step 4.3.</li>
	<li>Place the slides at a slant allowing remaining buffer to flow down the slide. Carefully wipe excess liquid off the slide from step 3.6 and place the slide into the pipet-tip box with water at the bottom. Add 500 &#956;l of FISH wash buffer (10% formamide in 2x SSC) on the slide and incubate for 5 min at room temperature.</li>
	<li>Remove FISH wash solution, add 8 &#956;l of oligonucleotide probes onto the slide, place a cover slip, and transfer the slide to a pre-warmed pipet-tip box with water at the bottom; incubate at 37 &#176;C for 1-2 hr.</li>
	<li>Place 3 pre-warmed coplin jars in a water bath at 37 &#176;C with FISH wash buffer, FISH wash buffer with DAPI, and 2x SSC.</li>
	<li>After 1-2 hr incubation for RNA FISH, put the slide into the pre-warmed FISH wash buffer.</li>
	<li>Incubate the slide for a few minutes until the coverslip falls off of the slide.</li>
	<li>Place the slide back into the wash buffer, and continue incubation for 5 min.</li>
	<li>Transfer the slide to another coplin jar with pre-warmed FISH wash buffer with 0.5 ng/ml DAPI and incubate for 5 min.</li>
	<li>Transfer the slide to another coplin jar with pre-warmed 2x SSC and incubate for 5 min.</li>
	<li>Place the slides at a slant allowing remaining buffer to flow down the slide. Carefully wipe excess liquid and place the slide back into a dry tip box. Add 4 &#956;l of antifade with DAPI onto the slide and place a coverslip.</li>
	<li>Seal the coverslip with nail polish and observe under a microscope. The slide can be stored at 4 &#176;C in the dark for a few months.</li>
</ol>

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No conflicts of interest declared.

In this paper, we have presented a quick immuno-FISH protocol that takes less than 5 hr to complete slide preparation, Xist RNA FISH, and immunofluorescence for H3K27me3. In comparison with the general immuno-FISH approach for Xist RNA detection, which usually needs overnight incubation for RNA FISH, this protocol not only significantly reduces time spent but also improves the sensitivity of immune-FISH using oligonucleotide probes.
Since Xist is highly transcribed during X-chromosome inactiva...

Mammalian X-chromosome inactivation (XCI) is a strategy to compensate for the imbalance in X-linked gene dosage between XX and XY, wherein one of the two X-chromosomes in females is transcriptionally inactivated1. X-chromosome inactivation is a great model system for long non-coding RNA (lncRNA) research. X-chromosome inactivation is regulated by multiple lncRNAs, and has been extensively studied over the past few decades to uncover the crosstalk mechanisms between lncRNAs, transcription, chromatin structure and nuclear organization2,3.
The X inactivation center (XIC) located on the X-chromosome is a complex genetic locus comprised of a number of genes producing non-coding RNAs4. X-inactive specific transcript (Xist) lncRNA in eutherian mammals is one such lncRNA which plays a crucial role in X-chromosome inactivation5,6. Xist transcripts surround the location of the future Xi to initiate X-chromosome inactivation, and appear as a cloud when visualized using RNA FISH; this formation is referred to as the &#8220;Xist Cloud&#8221;7. Since Xist RNA interacts with various chromatin-modifying enzymes, co-localization of the Xist clouds with different epigenetic modifications for silent chromatin and repressive transcription is observed during X-chromosome inactivation8. For example, Xist RNA interacts with polycomb repressive complex 2 (PRC2) which is responsible for H3K27me3 and induces a repressive chromatin state9. The occurrence of the Xist cloud on the Xi and its co-localization with the intensive H3K27me3 modification represents a facultative heterochromatin landscape of the Xi10,11.
Cytogenetic techniques, such as DNA/RNA FISH have come a long way from the traditional method using radiolabelled probes12 to recent and advanced techniques with enhanced sensitivity and fluorescent imaging using multiple oligonucleotide probes13,14. DNA/RNA FISH coupled with immunofluorescence has been routinely used as a cytological tool to understand spatiotemporal nuclear organization, RNA localization, chromatin structure and modifications. The most standard probe preparation for RNA FISH involves the use of plasmid or bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC) clones and their subsequent labeling either with nick translation or random priming15. However, nearly 70% of genes in mice and 40% of genes in humans show an overlap of sense and antisense transcripts16, hence requiring a strand-specific FISH method in order to distinguish sense and antisense transcripts. In vitro transcribed RNA probes (riboprobe) are often used for strand-specific RNA FISH17,18; however, this involves preparing a plasmid clone or PCR product with T7, SP6, or T3 promoter and synthesizing riboprobes. Furthermore, riboprobes derived from genomic DNA or cDNA often contain non-specific regions and repetitive elements, which result in high background noise. Another issue is that riboprobes, which are a few hundred nucleotides in length and contain multiple fluorophores, cannot efficiently penetrate into the nucleus. To circumvent this, multiple shorter oligonucleotide probes labeled with a single fluorophore at the end have been developed that have good sensitivity, uniform signal strength, and ease of purification and handling14. In addition, DNA oligonucleotides are generally more stable than RNA. We applied a similar strategy of using oligonucleotides in Xist RNA FISH19 with immunofluorescence to understand the epigenetic dynamics of the Xi induced by Xist lncRNA during the process of X-chromosome inactivation. This protocol describes the creation of oligonucleotide probes and proper preparation of cells, as well as utilization of immunofluorescence and RNA FISH. Xist RNA FISH using multiple oligonucleotides is cost effective approach in the long-term if Xist RNA FISH is performed routinely in one&#8217;s laboratory. This technique can be used to identify lncRNAs in cells while simultaneously mapping its co-localization with epigenetic modifications or factors. One major advantage of the protocol is the ability to easily modify it to suit one&#8217;s research interests.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="573">
	<tbody>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:267px;">oligonucleotides with 5&#8217;-amine modification</td>
			<td style="width:187px;">IDT</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:267px;">Alexa Fluor 488 Reactive Dye</td>
			<td style="width:187px;">Life Technologies</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">A32750</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:267px;">MicroSpin G-25 columns</td>
			<td style="width:187px;">GE Healthcare</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">27-5325-01</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:267px;">Cytospin 2</td>
			<td style="width:187px;">Shandon</td>
			<td align="right" style="width:119px;">59900102</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:267px;">Bovine Serum Albumin, Molecular Biology Grade (for hybridization buffer)</td>
			<td style="width:187px;">Roche</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">10715859103</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:267px;">Histone H3K27me3 antibody</td>
			<td style="width:187px;">Active Motif</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">61017</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:267px;">Accutase</td>
			<td style="width:187px;">Innovative Cell Technologies</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">AT104</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:267px;">Alexa Fluor 555 Goat Anti-Mouse, highly cross-adsorbed</td>
			<td style="width:187px;">Life Technologies</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">A21424</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:267px;">ProLong Gold antifade reagent</td>
			<td style="width:187px;">Life Technologies</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">P36931</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

quick fluorescent in situ hybridization protocol for xist rna combined with immunofluorescence of histone modification in x-chromosome inactivation

Combining RNA fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH) with immunofluorescence (immuno-FISH) creates a technique that can be employed at the single cell level to detect the spatial dynamics of RNA localization with simultaneous insight into the localization of proteins, epigenetic modifications and other details which can be highlighted by immunofluorescence. X-chromosome inactivation is a paradigm for long non-coding RNA (lncRNA)-mediated gene silencing. X-inactive specific transcript (Xist) lncRNA accumulation (called an Xist cloud) on one of the two X-chromosomes in mammalian females is a critical step to initiate X-chromosome inactivation. Xist RNA directly or indirectly interacts with various chromatin-modifying enzymes and introduces distinct epigenetic landscapes to the inactive X-chromosome (Xi). One known epigenetic hallmark of the Xi is the Histone H3 trimethyl-lysine 27 (H3K27me3) modification. Here, we describe a simple and quick immuno-FISH protocol for detecting Xist RNA using RNA FISH with multiple oligonucleotide probes coupled with immunofluorescence of H3K27me3 to examine the localization of Xist RNA and associated epigenetic modifications. Using oligonucleotide probes results in a shorter incubation time and more sensitive detection of Xist RNA compared to in vitro transcribed RNA probes (riboprobes). This protocol provides a powerful tool for understanding the dynamics of lncRNAs and its associated epigenetic modification, chromatin structure, nuclear organization and transcriptional regulation.

Representative images of quick immuno-FISH are shown in Figure 1A. Co-localization of the Xist RNA cloud and H3K27me3 signal on the Xi was detected in differentiating female cells. At day 12 upon differentiation, more than 90% of EB cells had an Xist cloud (Figure 1B). Short oligonucleotide probes efficiently penetrated into the nuclei, leading to a visualization of almost all H3K27me3 signals co-localized with Xist RNA (Figure 1C; 97%, n = 150).
<p class="jove_conte...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Quick Fluorescent In Situ Hybridization Protocol for Xist RNA Combined with Immunofluorescence of Histone Modification in X-chromosome Inactivation at JoVE.co

Quick Fluorescent In Situ Hybridization Protocol for Xist RNA Combined with Immunofluorescence of Histone Modification in X-chromosome Inactivation

We developed an easily customized strand-specific fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH) protocol combined with immunofluorescence. This allows for a detailed examination of RNA dynamics with simultaneous insight into the chromatin structure, nuclear organization, and transcriptional regulation at the single cell level.

Quick Fluorescent In Situ Hybridization Protocol for Xist RNA Combined with Immunofluorescence of Histone Modification in X-chromosome Inactivation

Combining RNA fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH) with immunofluorescence (immuno-FISH) creates a technique that can be employed at the single cell ...

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13.9K ビュー.  Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center. We developed an easily customized strand-specific fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH) protocol combined with immunofluorescence. This allows for a detailed examination of RNA dynamics with simultaneous insight into the chromatin structure, nuclear organization, and transcriptional regulation at the single cell level. 

ビデオ: Quick Fluorescent In Situ Hybridization Protocol for Xist RNA Combined with Immunofluorescence of Histone Modification in X-chromosome Inactivation

Double Whole Mount in situ Hybridization of Early Chick Embryos

The chick embryo is a valuable tool in the study of early embryonic development. Its transparency, accessibility and ease of manipulation, make it an ideal tool for studying  gene expression in brain, neural tube, somite and heart primordia formation. This video demonstrates the different steps in 2-color whole mount in situ hybridization; First, the embryo is dissected from the egg and fixed in paraformaldehyde. Second, the embryo is processed for prehybridization. The embryo is then hybridized with two different probes, one coupled to DIG, and one coupled to FITC.  Following overnight hybridization, the embryo is incubated with DIG coupled antibody. Color reaction for DIG substrate is performed, and the region of interest appears blue. The embryo is then incubated with FITC coupled antibody. The embryo is processed for color reaction with FITC, and the region of interest appears red. Finally, the embryo is fixed and processed for phtograph and sectioning. A troubleshooting guide is also presented.

This video demonstrates 2-color whole mount in situ hybridization, a method by which the spatial and temporal expression pattern of 2 different genes can be visualized in young chick embryos. This method was originally introduced by David Wilkinson, Domingos Henrique, Phil Ingham and David Ish -Horowicz.

The chick embryo is a valuable tool in the study of early embryonic development. Its transparency, accessibility and ease of manipulation, make it an ...

Non-radioactive in situ Hybridization Protocol Applicable for Norway Spruce and a Range of Plant Species

The high-throughput expression analysis technologies available today give scientists an overflow of expression profiles but their resolution in terms of tissue specific expression is limited because of problems in dissecting individual tissues. Expression data needs to be confirmed and complemented with expression patterns using e.g. in situ hybridization, a technique used to localize cell specific mRNA expression. The in situ hybridization method is laborious, time-consuming and often requires extensive optimization depending on species and tissue. In situ experiments are relatively more difficult to perform in woody species such as the conifer Norway spruce (Picea abies). Here we present a modified DIG in situ hybridization protocol, which is fast and applicable on a wide range of plant species including P. abies. With just a few adjustments, including altered RNase treatment and proteinase K concentration, we could use the protocol to study tissue specific expression of homologous genes in male reproductive organs of one gymnosperm and two angiosperm species; P. abies, Arabidopsis thaliana and Brassica napus. The protocol worked equally well for the species and genes studied. AtAP3 and BnAP3 were observed in second and third whorl floral organs in A. thaliana and B. napus and DAL13 in microsporophylls of male cones from P. abies. For P. abies the proteinase K concentration, used to permeablize the tissues, had to be increased to 3 g/ml instead of 1 g/ml, possibly due to more compact tissues and higher levels of phenolics and polysaccharides. For all species the RNase treatment was removed due to reduced signal strength without a corresponding increase in specificity. By comparing tissue specific expression patterns of homologous genes from both flowering plants and a coniferous tree we demonstrate that the DIG in situ protocol presented here, with only minute adjustments, can be applied to a wide range of plant species. Hence, the protocol avoids both extensive species specific optimization and the laborious use of radioactively labeled probes in favor of DIG labeled probes. We have chosen to illustrate the technically demanding steps of the protocol in our film.
Anna Karlgren and Jenny Carlsson contributed equally to this study.
Corresponding authors: Anna Karlgren at Anna.Karlgren@ebc.uu.se and Jens F. Sundstr&#246;m at Jens.Sundstrom@vbsg.slu.se

Non-radioactive in situ Hybridization Protocol Applicable for Norway Spruce and a Range of Plant Species

We describe a modified DIG in situ hybridization protocol, which is fast and applicable on a wide range of plant species including Norway spruce. With just a few adjustments, including altered RNase treatment and proteinase K concentration, the protocol may be used in studies of different tissues and species.

The high-throughput expression analysis technologies available today give scientists an overflow of expression profiles but their resolution in terms of ...

Zebrafish Whole Mount High-Resolution Double Fluorescent In Situ Hybridization

Whole mount in situ hybridization is one of the most widely used techniques in developmental biology. Here, we present a high-resolution double fluorescent in situ hybridization protocol for analyzing the precise expression pattern of a single gene and for determining the overlap of the expression domains of two genes. The protocol is a modified version of the standard in situ hybridization using alkaline phosphatase and substrates such as NBT/BCIP and Fast Red 1,2. This protocol utilizes standard digoxygenin and fluorescein labeled probes along with tyramide signal amplification (TSA) 3. The commercially available TSA kits allow flexible experimental design as fluorescence emission from green to far-red can be used in combination with various nuclear stains, such as propidium iodide, or fluorescence immunohistochemistry for proteins. TSA produces a reactive fluorescent substrate that quickly covalently binds to moieties, typically tyrosine residues, in the immediate vicinity of the labeled antisense riboprobe. The resulting staining patterns are high resolution in that subcellular localization of the mRNA can be observed using laser scanning confocal microscopy 3,4. One can observe nascent transcripts at the chromosomal loci, distinguish nuclear and cytoplasmic staining and visualize other patterns such as cortical localization of mRNA. Studies in Drosophila indicate that roughly 70% of mRNAs exhibit specific patterns of subcellular localization that frequently correlate with the function of the encoded protein 5. When combined with computer-aided reconstruction of 3D confocal datasets, our protocol allows the detailed analysis of mRNA distribution with sub-cellular resolution in whole vertebrate embryos.

Zebrafish Whole Mount High-Resolution Double Fluorescent In Situ Hybridization

Whole mount in situ hybridization is one of the most widely used techniques in developmental biology. Here, we present a high-resolution double fluorescent in situ hybridization protocol for analyzing the precise expression pattern of a single gene and for determining the overlap of the expression domains of two genes. We include a propidium iodide nuclear counter-stain to highlight tissue organization.

Whole mount in situ hybridization is one of the most widely used techniques in developmental biology.  Here, we present a high-resolution double ...

Fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) Protocol in Human Sperm

Aneuploidies are the most frequent chromosomal abnormalities in humans. Most of these abnormalities result from meiotic errors during the gametogenic process in the parents. In human males, these errors can lead to the production of spermatozoa with numerical chromosome abnormalities which represent an increased risk of transmitting these anomalies to the offspring.
For this reason, the technique of fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) on sperm nuclei has become a protocol widely incorporated in the context of clinical diagnosis. This practice provides an estimate of the frequencies of numerical chromosome abnormalities in the gametes of the patients that seek for genetic reproductive advice.
To date, the chromosomes most frequently included in sperm FISH analysis are chromosomes X, Y, 13, 18 and 21.
This video-article describes, step by step, how to process and fix a human semen sample, how to decondense and denature the sperm chromatin, how to proceed to obtain sperm FISH preparations, and how to visualize the results at the microscope. Special remarks of the most relevant steps are given to achieve the best results.

Fluorescence in situ hybridization FISH Protocol in Human Sperm

This video-article describes, step by step, how to process a semen sample to achieve good-quality fluorescence in situ hybridization on human spermatozoa. Preparations obtained can be used for aneuploidy screening in the context of clinical diagnosis.

Aneuploidies are the most frequent chromosomal abnormalities in humans. Most of these abnormalities result from meiotic errors during the gametogenic ...

Chromatin Immunoprecipitation (ChIP) to Assay Dynamic Histone Modification in Activated Gene Expression in Human Cells

In response to a variety of extracellular ligands, the STAT (signal transducer and activator of transcription) transcription factors are rapidly recruited from their latent state in the cytoplasm to cell surface receptors where they are activated by phosphorylation at a single tyrosine residue1. They then dimerize and translocate to the nucleus to drive the transcription of target genes, affecting growth, differentiation, homeostasis and the immune response. Not surprisingly, given their widespread involvement in normal cell processes, dysregulation of STAT function contributes to human disease, particularly to cancers2 and autoimmune diseases3. It is well established that transcription is regulated by alterations to the chromatin template4,5. These alterations include the activities of ATP-dependent complexes, as well as covalent histone modifications and DNA methylation6. Because STAT activation of gene expression is both rapid and transient, it requires specific mechanisms for modulating the chromatin template at STAT-dependent gene loci. To define these mechanisms, we characterize the histone modifications and the enzymatic activities that generate them at gene loci that respond to STAT signaling. This protocol describes chromatin immunoprecipitation, a method that is valuable for the study of STAT signaling to chromatin in activated gene expression.

Chromatin Immunoprecipitation ChIP to Assay Dynamic Histone Modification in Activated Gene Expression in Human Cells

This protocol describes how chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) is used to study the dynamic alterations to the chromatin template that regulate transcription induced by a signal transduction pathway.

In response to a variety of extracellular ligands, the STAT (signal transducer and activator of transcription) transcription factors are rapidly recruited ...

Detection of Viral RNA by Fluorescence in situ Hybridization (FISH)

Viruses that infect cells elicit specific changes to normal cell functions which serve to divert energy and resources for viral replication. Many aspects of host cell function are commandeered by viruses, usually by the expression of viral gene products that recruit host cell proteins and machineries. Moreover, viruses engineer specific membrane organelles or tag on to mobile vesicles and motor proteins to target regions of the cell (during de novo infection, viruses co-opt molecular motor proteins to target the nucleus; later, during virus assembly, they will hijack cellular machineries that will help in the assembly of viruses). Less is understood on how viruses, in particular those with RNA genomes, coordinate the intracellular trafficking of both protein and RNA components and how they achieve assembly of infectious particles at specific loci in the cell. The study of RNA localization began in earlier work. Developing lower eukaryotic embryos and neuronal cells provided important biological information, and also underscored the importance of RNA localization in the programming of gene expression cascades. The study in other organisms and cell systems has yielded similar important information. Viruses are obligate parasites and must utilise their host cells to replicate. Thus, it is critical to understand how RNA viruses direct their RNA genomes from the nucleus, through the nuclear pore, through the cytoplasm and on to one of its final destinations, into progeny virus particles 1.
FISH serves as a useful tool to identify changes in steady-state localization of viral RNA. When combined with immunofluorescence (IF) analysis 22, FISH/IF co-analyses will provide information on the co-localization of proteins with the viral RNA3. This analysis therefore provides a good starting point to test for RNA-protein interactions by other biochemical or biophysical tests 4,5, since co-localization by itself is not enough evidence to be certain of an interaction. In studying viral RNA localization using a method like this, abundant information has been gained on both viral and cellular RNA trafficking events 6. For instance, HIV-1 produces RNA in the nucleus of infected cells but the RNA is only translated in the cytoplasm. When one key viral protein is missing (Rev) 7, FISH of the viral RNA has revealed that the block to viral replication is due to the retention of the HIV-1 genomic RNA in the nucleus 8. 
Here, we present the method for visual analysis of viral genomic RNA in situ. The method makes use of a labelled RNA probe. This probe is designed to be complementary to the viral genomic RNA. During the in vitro synthesis of the antisense RNA probe, the ribonucleotide that is modified with digoxigenin (DIG) is included in an in vitro transcription reaction. Once the probe has hybridized to the target mRNA in cells, subsequent antibody labelling steps (Figure 1) will reveal the localization of the mRNA as well as proteins of interest when performing FISH/IF.

Detection of Viral RNA by Fluorescence in situ Hybridization FISH

A fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) method was developed to visually detect viral genomic RNA using fluorescence microscopy. A probe is made with specificity to the viral RNA that can then be identified using a combination of hybridization and immunofluorescence techniques. This technique offers the advantage of identifying the localization of the viral RNA or DNA at steady-state, providing information on the control of intracellular virus trafficking events.

Viruses  that infect cells elicit specific changes to normal cell functions which serve  to divert energy and resources for viral replication. Many ...

Analysis of Single-cell Gene Transcription by RNA Fluorescent In Situ Hybridization (FISH)

Adhesion of Plasmodium falciparum infected erythrocytes (IE) to human endothelial receptors during malaria infections is mediated by expression of PfEMP1 protein variants encoded by the var genes.
The haploid P. falciparum genome harbors approximately 60 different var genes of which only one has been believed to be transcribed per cell at a time during the blood stage of the infection. How such mutually exclusive regulation of var gene transcription is achieved is unclear, as is the identification of individual var genes or sub-groups of var genes associated with different receptors and the consequence of differential binding on the clinical outcome of P. falciparum infections. Recently, the mutually exclusive transcription paradigm has been called into doubt by transcription assays based on individual P. falciparum transcript identification in single infected erythrocytic cells using RNA fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH) analysis of var gene transcription by the parasite in individual nuclei of P. falciparum IE1.
Here, we present a detailed protocol for carrying out the RNA-FISH methodology for analysis of var gene transcription in single-nuclei of P. falciparum infected human erythrocytes. The method is based on the use of digoxigenin- and biotin- labeled antisense RNA probes using the TSA Plus Fluorescence Palette System2 (Perkin Elmer), microscopic analyses and freshly selected P. falciparum IE. The in situ hybridization method can be used to monitor transcription and regulation of a variety of genes expressed during the different stages of the P. falciparum life cycle and is adaptable to other malaria parasite species and other organisms and cell types.

Analysis of Single-cell Gene Transcription by RNA Fluorescent In Situ Hybridization FISH

Fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH) to identify mRNA transcripts in individual cells allows analysis of polygenic activity such as the simultaneous transcription of more than one member of the var multigene family in Plasmodium falciparum infected erythrocytes 1. The technique is adaptable and can be used on different types of genes, cells and organisms.

Adhesion of Plasmodium falciparum infected erythrocytes (IE) to human endothelial receptors during malaria infections is mediated by expression of PfEMP1 ...

Chromosome Replicating Timing Combined with Fluorescent In situ Hybridization

Mammalian DNA replication initiates at multiple sites along chromosomes at different times during S phase, following a temporal replication program. The specification of replication timing is thought to be a dynamic process regulated by tissue-specific and developmental cues that are responsive to epigenetic modifications. However, the mechanisms regulating where and when DNA replication initiates along chromosomes remains poorly understood. Homologous chromosomes usually replicate synchronously, however there are notable exceptions to this rule. For example, in female mammalian cells one of the two X chromosomes becomes late replicating through a process known as X inactivation1. Along with this delay in replication timing, estimated to be 2-3 hr, the majority of genes become transcriptionally silenced on one X chromosome. In addition, a discrete cis-acting locus, known as the X inactivation center, regulates this X inactivation process, including the induction of delayed replication timing on the entire inactive X chromosome. In addition, certain chromosome rearrangements found in cancer cells and in cells exposed to ionizing radiation display a significant delay in replication timing of &gt;3 hours that affects the entire chromosome2,3. Recent work from our lab indicates that disruption of discrete cis-acting autosomal loci result in an extremely late replicating phenotype that affects the entire chromosome4. Additional 'chromosome engineering' studies indicate that certain chromosome rearrangements affecting many different chromosomes result in this abnormal replication-timing phenotype, suggesting that all mammalian chromosomes contain discrete cis-acting loci that control proper replication timing of individual chromosomes5.
Here, we present a method for the quantitative analysis of chromosome replication timing combined with fluorescent in situ hybridization. This method allows for a direct comparison of replication timing between homologous chromosomes within the same cell, and was adapted from6. In addition, this method allows for the unambiguous identification of chromosomal rearrangements that correlate with changes in replication timing that affect the entire chromosome. This method has advantages over recently developed high throughput micro-array or sequencing protocols that cannot distinguish between homologous alleles present on rearranged and un-rearranged chromosomes. In addition, because the method described here evaluates single cells, it can detect changes in chromosome replication timing on chromosomal rearrangements that are present in only a fraction of the cells in a population.

Chromosome Replicating Timing Combined with Fluorescent In situ Hybridization

A quantitative method for the analysis of chromosome replication timing is described. The method utilizes BrdU incorporation in combination with fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH) to assess replication timing of mammalian chromosomes. This technique allows for the direct comparison of rearranged and un-rearranged chromosomes within the same cell.

Mammalian DNA replication initiates at multiple sites along chromosomes at different times during S phase, following a temporal replication program. The ...

Whole Mount RNA Fluorescent in situ Hybridization of Drosophila Embryos

Assessing the expression pattern of a gene, as well as the subcellular localization properties of its transcribed RNA, are key features for understanding its biological function during development. RNA in situ hybridization (RNA-ISH) is a powerful method used for visualizing RNA distribution properties, be it at the organismal, cellular or subcellular levels 1. RNA-ISH is based on the hybridization of a labeled nucleic acid probe (e.g. antisense RNA, oligonucleotides) complementary to the sequence of an mRNA or a non-coding RNA target of interest 2. As the procedure requires primary sequence information alone to generate sequence-specific probes, it can be universally applied to a broad range of organisms and tissue specimens 3. Indeed, a number of large-scale ISH studies have been implemented to document gene expression and RNA localization dynamics in various model organisms, which has led to the establishment of important community resources 4-11. While a variety of probe labeling and detection strategies have been developed over the years, the combined usage of fluorescently-labeled detection reagents and enzymatic signal amplification steps offer significant enhancements in the sensitivity and resolution of the procedure 12. Here, we describe an optimized fluorescent in situ hybridization method (FISH) employing tyramide signal amplification (TSA) to visualize RNA expression and localization dynamics in staged Drosophila embryos. The procedure is carried out in 96-well PCR plate format, which greatly facilitates the simultaneous processing of large numbers of samples.

Whole Mount RNA Fluorescent in situ Hybridization of Drosophila Embryos

Here we describe a whole-mount fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH) protocol for determining the expression and localization properties of RNAs expressed during embryogenesis in the fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster.

Assessing  the expression pattern of a gene, as well as the subcellular localization  properties of its transcribed RNA, are key features for ...

RNA In situ Hybridization in Whole Mount Embryos and Cell Histology Adapted for Marine Elasmobranchs

Marine elasmobranchs are valued animal models for biomedical and genomic studies as they are the most primitive vertebrates to have adaptive immunity and have unique mechanisms for osmoregulation 1-3. As the most primitive living jawed-vertebrates with paired appendages, elasmobranchs are an evolutionarily important model, especially for studies in evolution and development. Marine elasmobranchs have also been used to study aquatic toxicology and stress physiology in relationship to climate change 4. Thus, development and adaptation of methodologies is needed to facilitate and expand the use of these primitive vertebrates to multiple biological disciplines. Here I present the successful adaptation of RNA whole mount in situ hybridization and histological techniques to study gene expression and cell histology in elasmobranchs.
Monitoring gene expression is a hallmark tool of developmental biologists, and is widely used to investigate developmental processes 5. RNA whole mount in situ hybridization allows for the visualization and localization of specific gene transcripts in tissues of the developing embryo. The expression pattern of a gene's message can provide insight into what developmental processes and cell fate decisions a gene may control. By comparing the expression pattern of a gene at different developmental stages, insight can be gained into how the role of a gene changes during development.
While whole mount in situ's provides a means to localize gene expression to tissue, histological techniques allow for the identification of differentiated cell types and tissues. Histological stains have varied functions. General stains are used to highlight cell morphology, for example hematoxylin and eosin for general staining of nuclei and cytoplasm, respectively. Other stains can highlight specific cell types. For example, the alcian blue stain reported in this paper is a widely used cationic stain to identify mucosaccharides. Staining of the digestive tract with alcian blue can identify the distribution of goblet cells that produce mucosaccharides. Variations in mucosaccharide constituents on short peptides distinguish goblet cells by function within the digestive tract 6. By using RNA whole mount in situ's and histochemical methods concurrently, cell fate decisions can be linked to gene-specific expression.
Although RNA in situ's and histochemistry are widely used by researchers, their adaptation and use in marine elasmobranchs have met limited and varied success. Here I present protocols developed for elasmobranchs and used on a regular basis in my laboratory. Although further modification of the RNA in situ's hybridization method may be needed to adapt to different species, the protocols described here provide a strong starting point for researchers wanting to adapt the use of marine elasmobranchs to their scientific inquiries.

RNA In situ Hybridization in Whole Mount Embryos and Cell Histology Adapted for Marine Elasmobranchs

By combining methods for RNA whole mount in situ hybridization and histology, gene expression can be linked with cell fate decisions in the developing embryo. These methods have been adapted to marine elasmobranchs and facilitate the use of these animals as model organisms for biomedical, toxicology and comparative studies.

Marine  elasmobranchs are valued animal models for biomedical and genomic studies as  they are the most primitive vertebrates to have adaptive immunity ...