The authors wish to thank Dirk Herrmann, Oliver Wendt, Siegfried Horn, Hartmut Gutzeit, and Joerg Bohn for their substantial help concerning the solvent vapour welding. 
Furthermore, we would like to acknowledge Michael Hartmann, Alex Gerwald, and Daniel Leisen for their technical assistance.

Process Sequence #1: Hot Embossing, Machining and Solvent Vapour Welding
The CellChip in its cubic design is replicated by hot embossing or micro injection moulding. For this, we use a micromachined brass mould with the inverse geometry of the chip. The containers - arranged in a regular array of up to 1156 containers - have a cubic design with an edge length of 300 &micro;m. For hot embossing, the replication process is performed on a conventional WUM02 (Jenoptik Mikrotechnik, Germany). The tool consists of two circular metal plates. In a first step, a thin PMMA plate (Lucryl, G77Q11, BASF) is placed in the centre of the lower plate of the opened tool. The microstructured mould insert is centrically mounted in the upper plate. Then the tool is closed for evacuation of the mould and heated to a temperature above the glass transition temperature of the polymer. By pressing the plates together, the viscous polymer is pushed into the evacuated cavities until they are completely filled precisely replicating the geometry of the mould. After cooling the tool, the microstructured polymer part can be demoulded. The process requires more polymer mass than is actually needed to fill the mould cavities. The polymer surplus forms a residual layer which can be used to ease the demoulding of the part. However, to create pores of diameter smaller than 3 &micro;m in the bottom of the containers, the thick residual layer has to be thinned down, or even completely removed and replaced by a porous membrane. To simplify the process of pore integration, the back of the replicated CellChip is completely removed by machining with a diamond mill. For this, the parts are fixed on a cooled mounting plate and, additionally, the fragile structures are frozen in deionised water to protect them against damage.
In a last process step, finally a commercial ion track-etched membrane (polycarbonate, thickness 10 &micro;m, pore size 3 &micro;m, 2x106 pores/cm&sup2;, Pieper Filter GmbH) is bonded to the back of the array of containers now opened both on top and bottom. The bonding process is a solvent vapour welding process performed in a gastight, heated chamber [Fig. 1], consisting of an upper plunger and a moveable lower plate with an integrated vacuum chuck.4 Up to four machined CellChips and track-etched membranes are exposed in parallel to a vaporized solvent after the chamber was evacuated. Then, the moulded parts and the membranes are pressed together by the upper plunger. After a short period of exposure (&lt;15 s), the chamber is evacuated again thereby removing the solvent. Due to the short contact time, only surface near material is dissolved and a deformation of the bulk structure due to the mechanical load can be avoided. Finally, the chamber is opened and the solvent welded CellChips can be removed and prepared for cell culture [Fig. 2].
<a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/old/699_2008_5_12_7/Giselbrecht-Fig1.png"><img style="border: 1px solid black;" src="/files/ftp_upload/old/699_2008_5_12_7/Giselbrecht-Fig1.png" alt="Figure 1" width="100" /></a> Figure 1.
<a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/old/699_2008_5_12_8/Giselbrecht-Fig2.png"><img style="border: 1px solid black;" src="/files/ftp_upload/old/699_2008_5_12_8/Giselbrecht-Fig2.png" alt="Figure 2" width="100" /></a> Figure 2.
Process Sequence #2: heavy ion irradiation, microthermoforming and track etching (SMART process)
The new process called SMART is a recently developed micro technology for manufacturing functionalized membrane-like microstructures.5 The technology is based on a microtechnical thermoforming process, called &lsquo;microthermoforming'.6,7 In this central process step, which was adapted from the macroscopic trapped sheet thermoforming process, a heated thin polymer film is formed in its softened, rubber elastic state by gas pressure into a mould cavity [Fig. 3]. Unlike hot embossing or injection moulding, this process is not a primary forming and the polymer is not melted. Due to the fact that the film is formed still in a solid state with a permanent material cohesion, material modifications with high lateral resolutions can first be generated on planar polymer films and are preserved throughout the forming process. After the microthermoforming step, these modifications can be further selectively processed, e.g., by wet chemical treatment.
<img style="border: 1px solid black;" src="/files/ftp_upload/old/699_2008_5_12_9/Giselbrecht-Fig3.png" alt="Figure 3" width="400" height="217" /> Figure 3
The SMART process in principle consists of three process steps:
<ol>
<li>creation of highly resolved modification patterns on planar thin polymer films in a pre-process</li>
<li>3D shaping of films by microthermoforming without loss of (patterned) modifications</li>
<li>post-process (optional) for a final functionalisation of thin-walled microstructured parts</li>
</ol>
The SMART process we are currently applying for the fabrication of porous CellChips includes the following process steps [Fig. 4]. A thin polymer film, e.g., from polycarbonate (Pokalon OG461Gl, 50 &micro;m, LoFo High Tech Film GmbH, Germany), is irradiated with accelerated heavy ions (such as Xe, Au or U ions) at the accelerator facilities of GSI (Darmstadt, Germany) with energies of approx. 1 GeV and fluences in the order of 1068 After cooling the tool, the thin walled part can be demoulded. ions/cm&sup2;. When penetrating through the film, each ion produces a nearly straight trail of modified material, called latent track. The pre-treated films are then thermoformed to an array of 25x25 thin walled microcontainers, each with a diameter and depth of 300 &micro;m. The process is currently performed on a modified hot embossing press [Fig. 5], where the polymer film is clamped in between two metal plates. The upper plate is equipped with the micromachined mould and the lower one contains the pressure and vacuum connectors. The film is stretched into previously evacuated microcavities of the mould by nitrogen with a pressure of up to 5 MPa. The films are formed near their glass transition temperature preventing track annealing.
<img style="border: 1px solid black;" src="/files/ftp_upload/old/699_2008_5_12_10/Giselbrecht-Fig4.png" alt="Figure 4" width="400" height="119" /> Figure 4
<a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/old/699_2008_5_12_11/Giselbrecht-Fig5.png"><img style="border: 1px solid black;" src="/files/ftp_upload/old/699_2008_5_12_11/Giselbrecht-Fig5.png" alt="Figure 5" width="100" /></a> Figure 5
In a post-process, the ion tracks are selectively etched to pores by immersing the entire microstructure into an appropriate etching medium (e.g., 5 Mol/L NaOH, 10% w/v MeOH). By controlling the etching times and etching conditions, such as concentration, temperature and special additives (e.g., etch promoters), the size and shape of the resulting pores can be adjusted [Fig. 6].
<a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/old/699_2008_5_12_12/Giselbrecht-Fig6.png"><img style="border: 1px solid black;" src="/files/ftp_upload/old/699_2008_5_12_12/Giselbrecht-Fig6.png" alt="Figure 6" width="100" /></a> Figure 6

<ol>
	<li>Knedlitschek, G., Schneider, F., Gottwald, E., Schaller, T., Eschbach, E., Weibezahn, K. F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+tissue-like+culture+system+using+microstructures:+influence+of+extracellular+matrix+material+on+cell+adhesion+and+aggregation.">A tissue-like culture system using microstructures: influence of extracellular matrix material on cell adhesion and aggregation.</a> J Biomech Eng. 121, 35-39 (1999).</li><li>Gottwald, E., Giselbrecht, S., Augspurger, C., Lahni, B., Dambrowsky, N., Truckenm&#252;ller, R., Piotter, V., Gietzelt, T., Wendt, O., Pfleging, W., Welle, A., Rolletschek, A., Wobus, A. M., Weibezahn, K. F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+chip-based+platform+for+the+in+vitro+generation+of+tissues+in+three-dimensional+organization.">A chip-based platform for the in vitro generation of tissues in three-dimensional organization.</a> Lab Chip. 7, 777-785 (2007).</li><li>Heckele, M., Schomburg, W. K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Review+on+micro+molding+of+thermoplastic+polymers.">Review on micro molding of thermoplastic polymers.</a> Journal of Micromechanics And Microengineering. 14, (2004).</li><li>Giselbrecht, S., Gietzelt, T., Guber, A. E., Gottwald, E., Trautmann, C., Truckenm&#252;ller, R., Weibezahn, K. -. F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Microthermoforming+as+a+novel+technique+for+manufacturing+scaffolds+in+tissue+engineering+(CellChips.">Microthermoforming as a novel technique for manufacturing scaffolds in tissue engineering (CellChips.</a> IEE Proc.-Nanobiotechnol. 151, 151-157 (2004).</li><li>Giselbrecht, S., Gietzelt, T., Gottwald, E., Trautmann, C., Truckenm&#252;ller, R., Weibezahn, K. -. F., Welle, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=3D+tissue+culture+substrates+produced+by+microthermoforming+of+pre-processed+polymer+films.">3D tissue culture substrates produced by microthermoforming of pre-processed polymer films.</a> Biomed Microdevices. 8, 191-199 .</li><li>Truckenm&#252;ller, R., Rummler, Z., Schaller, T., Schomburg, W. K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Low-cost+thermoforming+of+micro+fluidic+analysis+chips.">Low-cost thermoforming of micro fluidic analysis chips.</a> Journal of Micromechanics and Microengineering. 12, 375-379 (2002).</li><li>Truckenm&#252;ller, R., Giselbrecht, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Microthermoforming+of+flexible,+not+buried+hollow+microstructures+for+chip-based+life+sciences+applications.">Microthermoforming of flexible, not buried hollow microstructures for chip-based life sciences applications.</a> IEE Proc.-Nanobiotechnol. 151, 163-166 (2004).</li><li>Fleischer, R. L., Price, P. B., Walker, R. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Nuclear+tracks+in+solids.">Nuclear tracks in solids.</a> , .</li></ol>

Although established methods of polymer microreplication, such as micro injection moulding or hot embossing, are suitable for producing microstructures, they are not really effective in producing microstructures with an integrated and highly controlled porosity, as is needed for the CellChip. Bulky structures e.g. require costly machining to reduce wall thickness for a subsequent laser perforation or walls have to be completely substituted by track-etched membranes. 
SMART is a new and promising technology that can over...

microfabrication of chip-sized scaffolds for three-dimensional cell cultivation

Using microfabrication technologies is a prerequisite to create scaffolds of reproducible geometry and constant quality for three-dimensional cell cultivation. These technologies offer a wide spectrum of advantages not only for manufacturing but also for different applications. The size and shape of formed cell clusters can be influenced by the exact and reproducible architecture of the microfabricated scaffold and, therefore, the diffusion path length of nutrients and gases can be controlled.1 This is unquestionably a useful tool to prevent apoptosis and necrosis of cells due to an insufficient nutrient and gas supply or removal of cellular metabolites.
Our polymer chip, called CellChip, has the outer dimensions of 2 x 2 cm with a central microstructured area. This area is subdivided into an array of up to 1156 microcontainers with a typical dimension of 300 m edge length for the cubic design (cp- or cf-chip) or of 300 m diameter and depth for the round design (r-chip).2
So far, hot embossing or micro injection moulding (in combination with subsequent laborious machining of the parts) was used for the fabrication of the microstructured chips. Basically, micro injection moulding is one of the only polymer based replication techniques that, up to now, is capable for mass production of polymer microstructures.3 However, both techniques have certain unwanted limitations due to the processing of a viscous polymer melt with the generation of very thin walls or integrated through holes. In case of the CellChip, thin bottom layers are necessary to perforate the polymer and provide small pores of defined size to supply cells with culture medium e.g. by microfluidic perfusion of the containers.
In order to overcome these limitations and to reduce the manufacturing costs we have developed a new microtechnical approach on the basis of a down-scaled thermoforming process. For the manufacturing of highly porous and thin walled polymer chips, we use a combination of heavy ion irradiation, microthermoforming and track etching. In this so called "SMART" process (Substrate Modification And Replication by Thermoforming) thin polymer films are irradiated with energetic heavy projectiles of several hundred MeV introducing so-called "latent tracks" Subsequently, the film in a rubber elastic state is formed into three dimensional parts without modifying or annealing the tracks. After the forming process, selective chemical etching finally converts the tracks into cylindrical pores of adjustable diameter.

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Microfabrication of Chip-sized Scaffolds for Three-dimensional Cell cultivation at JoVE.com

Microfabrication of Chip-sized Scaffolds for Three-dimensional Cell cultivation

We present two processes for the microfabrication of porous polymer chips for three-dimensional cell cultivation. The first one is hot embossing combined with a solvent vapour welding process. The second one uses a recently developed microthermoforming process combined with ion track technology leading to a significant simplification of manufacture.

Using microfabrication technologies is a prerequisite to create scaffolds of reproducible geometry and constant quality for three-dimensional cell ...

microfabrication-chip-sized-scaffolds-for-three-dimensional-cell

Research

JoVE Journal

Biology

11.7K 조회수.  Karlsruhe Research Centre. 우리는 세 차원 세포 배양을위한 다공성 고분자 칩의 microfabrication 두 가지 프로세스를 제시한다. 첫 번째는 용매 증기 용접 공정과 결합 핫 엠보싱입니다. 두 번째는 생산의 중요한 단순화하기 위해 선도적인 이온 트랙 기술과 함께 최근에 개발된 microthermoforming 프로세스를 사용합니다.

비디오: Microfabrication of Chip-sized Scaffolds for Three-dimensional Cell cultivation

Chip-based Three-dimensional Cell Culture in Perfused Micro-bioreactors

We have developed a chip-based cell culture system for the three-dimensional cultivation of cells. The chip is typically manufactured from non-biodegradable polymers, e.g., polycarbonate or polymethyl methacrylate by micro injection molding, micro hot embossing or micro thermoforming. But, it can also be manufactured from bio-degradable polymers. Its overall dimensions are 0.7 1 x 20 x 20 x 0.7 1 mm (h x w x l). The main features of the chips used are either a grid of up to 1156 cubic micro-containers (cf-chip) each the size of 120-300 x 300 x 300 &mu; (h x w x l) or round recesses with diameters of 300 &mu; and a depth of 300 &mu; (r-chip). The scaffold can house 10 Mio. cells in a three-dimensional configuration. For an optimal nutrient and gas supply, the chip is inserted in a bioreactor housing. The bioreactor is part of a closed steril circulation loop that, in the simplest configuration, is additionaly comprised of a roller pump and a medium reservoir with a gas supply. The bioreactor can be run in perfusion, superfusion, or even a mixed operation mode. We have successfully cultivated cell lines as well as primary cells over periods of several weeks. For rat primary liver cells we could show a preservation of organotypic functions for more than 2 weeks. For hepatocellular carcinoma cell lines we could show the induction of liver specific genes not or only slightly expressed in standard monolayer culture. The system might also be useful as a stem cell cultivation system since first differentiation experiments with stem cell lines were promising.

We describe a chip-based platform for the three-dimensional cultivation of cells in micro-bioreactors. One chip can house up to 10 Mio. cells that can be cultivated under precisely defined conditions with regard to fluid flow, oxygen tension etc. in a sterile, closed circulation loop.

We have developed a chip-based cell culture system for the three-dimensional cultivation of cells. The chip is typically manufactured from ...

Electrospinning Fibrous Polymer Scaffolds for Tissue Engineering and Cell Culture

As the field of tissue engineering evolves, there is a tremendous demand to produce more suitable materials and processing techniques in order to address the requirements (e.g., mechanics and vascularity) of more intricate organs and tissues. Electrospinning is a popular technique to create fibrous scaffolds that mimic the architecture and size scale of the native extracellular matrix. These fibrous scaffolds are also useful as cell culture substrates since the fibers can be used to direct cellular behavior, including stem cell differentiation (see extensive reviews by Mauck et al. and Sill et al. for more information). In this article, we describe the general process of electrospinning polymers and as an example, electrospin a reactive hyaluronic acid capable of crosslinking with light exposure (see Ifkovits et al. for a review on photocrosslinkable materials). We also introduce further processing capabilities such as photopatterning and multi-polymer scaffold formation. Photopatterning can be used to create scaffolds with channels and multi-scale porosity to increase cellular infiltration and tissue distribution. Multi-polymer scaffolds are useful to better tune the properties (mechanics and degradation) of a scaffold, including tailored porosity for cellular infiltration. Furthermore, these techniques can be extended to include a wide array of polymers and reactive macromers to create complex scaffolds that provide the cues necessary for the development of successful tissue engineered constructs.

The process of electrospinning polymers for tissue engineering and cell culture is addressed in this article. Specifically, the electrospinning of photoreactive macromers with additional processing capabilities of photopatterning and multi-polymer electrospinning is described.

As the field of tissue engineering evolves, there is a tremendous demand to produce more suitable materials and processing techniques in order to address ...

Isolation of Mammary Epithelial Cells from Three-dimensional Mixed-cell Spheroid Co-culture

While enormous efforts have gone into identifying signaling pathways and molecules involved in normal and malignant cell behaviors1-2, much of this work has been done using classical two-dimensional cell culture models, which allow for easy cell manipulation. It has become clear that intracellular signaling pathways are affected by extracellular forces, including dimensionality and cell surface tension3-4. Multiple approaches have been taken to develop three-dimensional models that more accurately represent biologic tissue architecture3. While these models incorporate multi-dimensionality and architectural stresses, study of the consequent effects on cells is less facile than in two-dimensional tissue culture due to the limitations of the models and the difficulty in extracting cells for subsequent analysis.
The important role of the microenvironment around tumors in tumorigenesis and tumor behavior is becoming increasingly recognized4. Tumor stroma is composed of multiple cell types and extracellular molecules. During tumor development there are bidirectional signals between tumor cells and stromal cells5. Although some factors participating in tumor-stroma co-evolution have been identified, there is still a need to develop simple techniques to systematically identify and study the full array of these signals6. Fibroblasts are the most abundant cell type in normal or tumor-associated stromal tissues, and contribute to deposition and maintenance of basement membrane and paracrine growth factors7.
Many groups have used three dimensional culture systems to study the role of fibroblasts on various cellular functions, including tumor response to therapies, recruitment of immune cells, signaling molecules, proliferation, apoptosis, angiogenesis, and invasion8-15. We have optimized a simple method for assessing the effects of mammary fibroblasts on mammary epithelial cells using a commercially available extracellular matrix model to create three-dimensional cultures of mixed cell populations (co-cultures)16-22. With continued co-culture the cells form spheroids with the fibroblasts clustering in the interior and the epithelial cells largely on the exterior of the spheroids and forming multi-cellular projections into the matrix. Manipulation of the fibroblasts that leads to altered epithelial cell invasiveness can be readily quantified by changes in numbers and length of epithelial projections23. Furthermore, we have devised a method for isolating epithelial cells out of three-dimensional co-culture that facilitates analysis of the effects of fibroblast exposure on epithelial behavior. We have found that the effects of co-culture persist for weeks after epithelial cell isolation, permitting ample time to perform multiple assays. This method is adaptable to cells of varying malignant potential and requires no specialized equipment. This technique allows for rapid evaluation of in vitro cell models under multiple conditions, and the corresponding results can be compared to in vivo animal tissue models as well as human tissue samples.

A simple method is described for analyzing effects of tissue fibroblasts on associated epithelial cells. The combination of this method and three-dimensional tissue culture can facilitate analysis of cells after isolation from 3D. The technique is applicable to cells of varying malignant potential, allowing systematic study of effects of tumor-associated stroma on tumor cells.

While enormous efforts have gone into identifying signaling pathways and molecules involved in normal and malignant cell behaviors1-2, much of this work ...

Two- and Three-Dimensional Live Cell Imaging of DNA Damage Response Proteins

Double-strand breaks (DSBs) are the most deleterious DNA lesions a cell can encounter. If left unrepaired, DSBs harbor great potential to generate mutations and chromosomal aberrations1. To prevent this trauma from catalyzing genomic instability, it is crucial for cells to detect DSBs, activate the DNA damage response (DDR), and repair the DNA. When stimulated, the DDR works to preserve genomic integrity by triggering cell cycle arrest to allow for repair to take place or force the cell to undergo apoptosis. The predominant mechanisms of DSB repair occur through nonhomologous end-joining (NHEJ) and homologous recombination repair (HRR) (reviewed in2). There are many proteins whose activities must be precisely orchestrated for the DDR to function properly. Herein, we describe a method for 2- and 3-dimensional (D) visualization of one of these proteins, 53BP1.
The p53-binding protein 1 (53BP1) localizes to areas of DSBs by binding to modified histones3,4, forming foci within 5-15 minutes5. The histone modifications and recruitment of 53BP1 and other DDR proteins to DSB sites are believed to facilitate the structural rearrangement of chromatin around areas of damage and contribute to DNA repair6. Beyond direct participation in repair, additional roles have been described for 53BP1 in the DDR, such as regulating an intra-S checkpoint, a G2/M checkpoint, and activating downstream DDR proteins7-9. Recently, it was discovered that 53BP1 does not form foci in response to DNA damage induced during mitosis, instead waiting for cells to enter G1 before localizing to the vicinity of DSBs6. DDR proteins such as 53BP1 have been found to associate with mitotic structures (such as kinetochores) during the progression through mitosis10.
In this protocol we describe the use of 2- and 3-D live cell imaging to visualize the formation of 53BP1 foci in response to the DNA damaging agent camptothecin (CPT), as well as 53BP1's behavior during mitosis. Camptothecin is a topoisomerase I inhibitor that primarily causes DSBs during DNA replication. To accomplish this, we used a previously described 53BP1-mCherry fluorescent fusion protein construct consisting of a 53BP1 protein domain able to bind DSBs11. In addition, we used a histone H2B-GFP fluorescent fusion protein construct able to monitor chromatin dynamics throughout the cell cycle but in particular during mitosis12. Live cell imaging in multiple dimensions is an excellent tool to deepen our understanding of the function of DDR proteins in eukaryotic cells.

This protocol describes a method for visualizing a DNA double-strand break signaling protein activated in response to DNA damage as well as its localization during mitosis.

Double-strand breaks (DSBs) are the most deleterious DNA lesions a cell can encounter. If left unrepaired, DSBs harbor great potential to generate ...

Mouse Fetal Whole Intestine Culture System for Ex Vivo Manipulation of Signaling Pathways and Three-dimensional Live Imaging of Villus Development

Most morphogenetic processes in the fetal intestine have been inferred from thin sections of fixed tissues, providing snapshots of changes over developmental stages. Three-dimensional information from thin serial sections can be challenging to interpret because of the difficulty of reconstructing serial sections perfectly and maintaining proper orientation of the tissue over serial sections. Recent findings by Grosse et al., 2011 highlight the importance of three- dimensional information in understanding morphogenesis of the developing villi of the intestine1. Three-dimensional reconstruction of singly labeled intestinal cells demonstrated that the majority of the intestinal epithelial cells contact both the apical and basal surfaces. Furthermore, three-dimensional reconstruction of the actin cytoskeleton at the apical surface of the epithelium demonstrated that the intestinal lumen is continuous and that secondary lumens are an artifact of sectioning. Those two points, along with the demonstration of interkinetic nuclear migration in the intestinal epithelium, defined the developing intestinal epithelium as a pseudostratified epithelium and not stratified as previously thought1. The ability to observe the epithelium three-dimensionally was seminal to demonstrating this point and redefining epithelial morphogenesis in the fetal intestine. With the evolution of multi-photon imaging technology and three-dimensional reconstruction software, the ability to visualize intact, developing organs is rapidly improving. Two-photon excitation allows less damaging penetration deeper into tissues with high resolution. Two-photon imaging and 3D reconstruction of the whole fetal mouse intestines in Walton et al., 2012 helped to define the pattern of villus outgrowth2. Here we describe a whole organ culture system that allows ex vivo development of villi and extensions of that culture system to allow the intestines to be three-dimensionally imaged during their development.

Mouse Fetal Whole Intestine Culture System for Ex Vivo Manipulation of Signaling Pathways and Three-dimensional Live Imaging of Villus Development

Improved imaging technology is allowing three-dimensional imaging of organs during development. Here we describe a whole organ culture system that allows live imaging of the developing villi in the fetal mouse intestine.

Most morphogenetic processes in the fetal intestine have been inferred from thin sections of fixed tissues, providing snapshots of changes over ...

FRET Imaging in Three-dimensional Hydrogels

Imaging of F&#246;rster resonance energy transfer (FRET)&#160;is a powerful tool for examining cell biology in real-time. Studies utilizing FRET commonly employ two-dimensional (2D) culture, which does not mimic the three-dimensional (3D) cellular microenvironment. A method to perform quenched emission FRET imaging using conventional widefield epifluorescence microscopy of cells within a 3D hydrogel environment is presented. Here an analysis method for ratiometric FRET probes that yields linear ratios over the probe activation range is described. Measurement of intracellular cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) levels is demonstrated in chondrocytes under forskolin stimulation using a probe for EPAC1 activation (ICUE1) and the ability to detect differences in cAMP signaling dependent on hydrogel material type, herein a photocrosslinking hydrogel (PC-gel, polyethylene glycol dimethacrylate) and a thermoresponsive hydrogel (TR-gel). Compared with 2D FRET methods, this method requires little additional work. Laboratories already utilizing FRET imaging in 2D can easily adopt this method to perform cellular studies in a 3D microenvironment. It can further be applied to high throughput drug screening in engineered 3D microtissues. Additionally, it is compatible with other forms of FRET imaging, such as anisotropy measurement and fluorescence lifetime imaging (FLIM), and with advanced microscopy platforms using confocal, pulsed, or modulated illumination.

F&#246;rster resonance energy transfer (FRET) imaging is a powerful tool for real-time cell biology studies. Here a method for FRET imaging cells in physiologic three-dimensional (3D) hydrogel microenvironments using conventional epifluorescence microscopy is presented. An analysis for ratiometric FRET probes that yields linear ratios over the activation range is described.

Imaging of F&#246;rster resonance energy transfer (FRET)&#160;is a powerful tool for examining cell biology in real-time. Studies utilizing FRET commonly ...

Three-dimensional Reconstruction of the Vascular Architecture of the Passive CLARITY-cleared Mouse Ovary

The ovary is the main organ of the female reproductive system and is essential for the production of female gametes and for controlling the endocrine system, but the complex structural relationships and three-dimensional (3D) vasculature architectures of the ovary are not well described. In order to visualize the 3D connections and architecture of blood vessels in the intact ovary, the first important step is to make the ovary optically clear. In order to avoid tissue shrinkage, we used the hydrogel fixation-based passive CLARITY (Clear Lipid-exchanged Acrylamide-hybridized Rigid Imaging/ Immunostaining/In situ-hybridization-compatible Tissue Hydrogel) protocol method to clear an intact ovary. Immunostaining, advanced multiphoton confocal microscopy, and 3D image-reconstructions were then used for the visualization of ovarian vessels and follicular capillaries. Using this approach, we showed a significant positive correlation (P &#60;0.01) between the length of the follicular capillaries and volume of the follicular wall.

Here we present an adaptation of the passive CLARITY and 3D reconstruction method for visualization of the ovarian vasculature and follicular capillaries in intact mouse ovaries.

The ovary is the main organ of the female reproductive system and is essential for the production of female gametes and for controlling the endocrine ...

Adipo-Clear: A Tissue Clearing Method for Three-Dimensional Imaging of Adipose Tissue

Adipose tissue plays a central role in energy homeostasis and thermoregulation. It is composed of different types of adipocytes, as well as adipocyte precursors, immune cells, fibroblasts, blood vessels, and nerve projections. Although the molecular control of cell type specification and how these cells interact have been increasingly delineated, a more comprehensive understanding of these adipose-resident cells can be achieved by visualizing their distribution and architecture throughout the whole tissue. Existing immunohistochemistry and immunofluorescence approaches to analyze adipose histology rely on thin paraffin-embedded sections. However, thin sections capture only a small portion of tissue; as a result, the conclusions can be biased by what portion of tissue is analyzed. We have therefore developed an adipose tissue clearing technique, Adipo-Clear, to permit comprehensive three-dimensional visualization of molecular and cellular patterns in whole adipose tissues. Adipo-Clear was adapted from iDISCO/iDISCO+, with specific modifications made to completely remove the lipid stored in the tissue while preserving native tissue morphology. In combination with light-sheet fluorescence microscopy, we demonstrate here the use of the Adipo-Clear method to obtain high-resolution volumetric images&#160;of an entire adipose tissue.

Due to the high lipid content, adipose tissue has been challenging to visualize using traditional histological methods. Adipo-Clear is a tissue clearing technique that allows robust labeling and high-resolution volumetric fluorescent imaging of adipose tissue. Here, we describe the methods for sample preparation, pretreatment, staining, clearing, and mounting for imaging.

Adipose tissue plays a central role in energy homeostasis and thermoregulation. It is composed of different types of adipocytes, as well as adipocyte ...

Single-Cell Resolution Three-Dimensional Imaging of Intact Organoids

Organoid technology, in vitro 3D culturing of miniature tissue, has opened a new experimental window for cellular processes that govern organ development and function as well as disease. Fluorescence microscopy has played a major role in characterizing their cellular composition in detail and demonstrating their similarity to the tissue they originate from. In this article, we present a comprehensive protocol for high-resolution 3D imaging of whole organoids upon immunofluorescent labeling. This method is widely applicable for imaging of organoids differing in origin, size and shape. Thus far we have applied the method to airway, colon, kidney, and liver organoids derived from healthy human tissue, as well as human breast tumor organoids and mouse mammary gland organoids. We use an optical clearing agent, FUnGI, which enables the acquisition of whole 3D organoids with the opportunity for single-cell quantification of markers. This three-day protocol from organoid harvesting to image analysis is optimized for 3D imaging using confocal microscopy.

The entire 3D structure and cellular content of organoids, as well as their phenotypic resemblance to the original tissue can be captured using the single-cell resolution 3D imaging protocol described here. This protocol can be applied to a wide range of organoids varying in origin, size and shape.

Organoid technology, in vitro 3D culturing of miniature tissue, has opened a new experimental window for cellular processes that govern organ development ...

Staining and High-Resolution Imaging of Three-Dimensional Organoid and Spheroid Models

In vitro three-dimensional (3D) cell culture models, such as organoids and spheroids, are valuable tools for many applications including development and disease modeling, drug discovery, and regenerative medicine. To fully exploit these models, it is crucial to study them at cellular and subcellular levels. However, characterizing such in vitro 3D cell culture models can be technically challenging and requires specific expertise to perform effective analyses. Here, this paper provides detailed, robust, and complementary protocols to perform staining and subcellular resolution imaging of fixed in vitro 3D cell culture models ranging from 100 &#181;m to several millimeters. These protocols are applicable to a wide variety of organoids and spheroids that differ in their cell-of-origin, morphology, and culture conditions. From 3D structure harvesting to image analysis, these protocols can be completed within 4-5 days. Briefly, 3D structures are collected, fixed, and can then be processed either through paraffin-embedding and histological/immunohistochemical staining, or directly immunolabeled and prepared for optical clearing and 3D reconstruction (200 &#181;m depth) by confocal microscopy.

Here, we provide detailed, robust, and complementary protocols to perform staining and subcellular resolution imaging of fixed three-dimensional cell culture models ranging from 100 &#181;m to several millimeters, thus enabling the visualization of their morphology, cell-type composition, and interactions.

In vitro three-dimensional (3D) cell culture models, such as organoids and spheroids, are valuable tools for many applications including development and ...

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Subtitles

Microfabrication of Chip-sized Scaffolds for Three-dimensional Cell cultivation