1) Cell preparation
 <ol>
 <li>When using adherent cells, it is necessary to trypsinize and collect the cells prior to electroporation.</li>
 <li>To compare transfection among the four mouse embryonic fibroblast (MEF) cultures, representing three different passage numbers, perform the following on each flask.</li>
 <li>Aspirate off cell culture media.</li>
 <li>Add PBS to wash cells.</li>
 <li>Remove PBS; add sufficient trypsin to cover cells, and wait a few minutes to allow trypsin to detach cells.</li>
 <li>Check flasks with a microscope to verify the condition of the cells, smack flask to detach cells, and then check flask again to make sure cells are all detached.</li>
 <li>Wait additional time and repeat if necessary.</li>
 <li>Once all cells are detached, add serum containing media to neutralize trypsin.</li>
 <li>Transfer cells to a centrifuge tube, and pellet cells by centrifugation (rcf = 300 x g).</li>
 <li>Remove supernatant and resuspend cells in a known volume of PBS. </li>
 <li>Count cells.</li>
 <li>Transfer to a new tube the appropriate volume of cell suspension to provide the required number of cells for experiments (you will need 150 &mu;L of cells per well at a density of 1 x 106 cells/mL).</li>
 <li>Centrifuge cells.</li>
 <li>Remove supernatant and resuspend cells in the appropriate volume of Gene Pulser electroporation buffer to achieve a cell density of 1 x 106 cells/mL.</li>
 <li>Add 20 &mu;g of plasmid per mL of cell suspension and mix gently.</li>
 </ol>
2) Electroporation vessel setup and electroporation
Plate setup and electroporation
<ol>
<li>Plug plate chamber into the power module of the Gene Pulser MXcell electroporation system. </li>
 <li>Pipette 150 &mu;L cell mixture or buffer into the wells of a 96-well electroporation plate.</li>
 <li>Put plate in plate chamber and pulse.</li>
 <li>Remove plate from chamber.</li>
 <li>Mix well contents by pipetting up and down in each well.</li>
 <li>Transfer the cells from each well to pre-warmed buffer in 12-well plates.</li>
 <li>Tap plate to distribute cells and put it in incubator.</li>
 <li>Let cells recover for 24 hours.</li>
</ol>
Cuvette setup and electroporation
<ol start="9">
 <li>Unplug plate chamber from the power module of the Gene Pulser MXcell electroporation system and plug in the ShockPod&trade; cuvette chamber.</li>
 <li>Pipette 600 &mu;L of cell suspension into a 0.4 cm gap electroporation cuvette.</li>
 <li>Put cuvette in ShockPod chamber and deliver electric pulse.</li>
 <li>Remove cuvette from chamber.</li>
 <li>Mix cuvette contents by pipetting up and down in cuvette.</li>
 <li>Transfer the cells from each well to pre-warmed buffer in 12-well plates.</li>
 <li>Tap plate to distribute cells and put it in incubator.</li>
 <li>Let the cells recover for 24 hours.</li>
 </ol>
3) Representative Results
After transfecting cells and allowing them to recover, analyze the transfection efficiency qualitatively, using epifluorescent microscopy, and quantitatively, using flow cytometry.
<img src="/files/ftp_upload/1662/1662fig1.jpg" alt="Figure 1" /> Figure 1. Cells that have been successfully electroporated and are now expressing the GFP gene appear under epifluorescent microscopy.
<img src="/files/ftp_upload/1662/1662fig2.jpg" alt="Figure 2" /> Figure 2. Viewing the cells under phase contrast allows visualization of both transfected and untransfected cells. These are the cells that were exposed to the lowest voltage electroporation pulse at 200V. The cells are largely confluent due to the high cell density.
<img src="/files/ftp_upload/1662/1662fig3.jpg" alt="Figure 3" /> Figure 3. The same field of view under epifluorescence shows a number of cells are expressing the GFP marker, but these are only a small percentage of the cells visible in the previous image.
<img src="/files/ftp_upload/1662/1662fig4.jpg" alt="Figure 4" /> Figure 4. At 250V, the total number of live cells seen under phase contrast decreases slightly.
<img src="/files/ftp_upload/1662/1662fig5.jpg" alt="Figure 5" /> Figure 5. Under epifluorescence, one can see that the number of GFP expressing cells has increased.
<img src="/files/ftp_upload/1662/1662fig6.jpg" alt="Figure 6" /> Figure 6. At the highest voltage applied, 375V, there are fewer live cells visible.
<img src="/files/ftp_upload/1662/1662fig7.jpg" alt="Figure 7" /> Figure 7. However, a large percentage of the remaining cells are expressing GFP. Which condition is optimal depends on the experimental design. In some experiments the largest number of transfected cells might be optimal, in other experiments the highest percentage transfection might be best.
We are interested in the percentage of cells that are GFP positive under each condition and how the percentages vary with cell age. Flow cytometry can provide quantitative information about the transfection results under each of the different electroporation conditions.
<img src="/files/ftp_upload/1662/1662fig8.jpg" alt="Figure 8" /> Figure 8. Here the percentage of cells that are GFP positive in the passage 5 cells under each of the 12 electroporation conditions are shown. The maximum transfection percentage was approximately 80% under the highest voltage exponential decay pulse, condition 6, and 70% under the strongest square wave pulse tested, condition 12.
<img src="/files/ftp_upload/1662/1662fig9.jpg" alt="Figure 9" /> Figure 9. With the cells passed 9 times prior to the electroporation, the overall pattern of transfection percentage is nearly identical, but with a very slight decrease in the transfection percentages.
<img src="/files/ftp_upload/1662/1662fig10.jpg" alt="Figure 10" /> Figure 10. Shown here are the percentages of GFP cells in the passage 13 cells which show a marked decrease in transfection percentage relative to the younger cells. The highest transfection percentages were approximately half what was achieved with the younger cells demonstrating the importance of using healthy cells as soon after isolation as possible.

 <table border="1">
 <tbody>
 <tr>
 <td colspan="3">Electroporation Conditions used for transfecting MEF cells using the Gene Pulser MXcell</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Condition (1-6) 
 Exponential Decay pulses, 
 all with 350 uF, 1000ohm </td>
 <td>Voltage (V)</td>
 <td>&nbsp;</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>1</td>
 <td>200</td>
 <td>&nbsp;</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>2</td>
 <td>250</td>
 <td>&nbsp;</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>3</td>
 <td>300</td>
 <td>&nbsp;</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>4</td>
 <td>326</td>
 <td>&nbsp;</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>5</td>
 <td>350</td>
 <td>&nbsp;</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>6</td>
 <td>376</td>
 <td>&nbsp;</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Condition (7-12) 
 Square Wave pulses, 
 all with 2000 uF, 1000 ohm, and 1 pulse</td>
 <td>Voltage (V)</td>
 <td>Pulse Duration (ms)</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>7</td>
 <td>200</td>
 <td>10 </td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>8</td>
 <td>250</td>
 <td>10</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>9</td>
 <td>300</td>
 <td>10</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>10</td>
 <td>200</td>
 <td>20</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>11</td>
 <td>250</td>
 <td>20</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>12</td>
 <td>300</td>
 <td>20</td>
 </tr>
 </tbody>
 </table>

The authors are employed by Bio-Rad Laboratories that produces reagents and instrument used in this article

This video article demonstrates how to use the MXcell electroporation system to easily identify optimal electroporation conditions for MEFs or other primary cell lines. The 96-well plate format allows for many replicates of experimental or optimization conditions to be performed simultaneously, which can eliminate the need for many separate experiments. While carrying out this procedure, one should to remember to use healthy cells as soon after isolation as possible and to use electroporation conditions that are matched to the electroporation buffer.

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		<div>
		<table border="1">
		<thead>
		<tr>
		<th>Material Name</th>
		<th>Type</th>
		<th>Company</th>
		<th>Catalogue Number</th>
		<th>Comment</th>
		</tr>
		</thead>
		<tbody>
		
<tr>
<td>Gene Pulser&reg; Electroporation Buffer</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Bio-Rad Laboratories, Inc.</td>
<td>165-2676</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>Gene Pulser MXcell&trade; Electroporation System</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Bio-Rad Laboratories, Inc.</td>
<td>165-2670</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>Gene Pulser MXcell&trade; ShockPod&trade; Cuvette Chamber</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Bio-Rad Laboratories, Inc.</td>
<td>165-2673</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>Gene Pulser MXcell&trade; Electroporation System With ShockPod&trade; Cuvette Chamber</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Bio-Rad Laboratories, Inc.</td>
<td>165-2674</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>		</tbody>
		</table>
		</div>

using the gene pulser mxcell electroporation system to transfect primary cells with high efficiency

It is becoming increasingly apparent that electroporation is the most effective way to introduce plasmid DNA or siRNA into primary cells. The Gene Pulser MXcell electroporation system and Gene Pulser electroporation buffer (Bio-Rad) were specifically developed to easily transfect nucleic acids into mammalian cells and difficult-to-transfect cells, such as primary and stem cells. We will demonstrate how to perform a simple experiment to quickly identify the best electroporation conditions. We will demonstrate how to run several samples through a range of electroporation conditions so that an experiment can be conducted at the same time as optimization is performed. We will also show how optimal conditions identified using 96-well electroporation plates can be used with standard electroporation cuvettes, facilitating the switch from electroporation plates to electroporation cuvettes while maintaining the same electroporation efficiency. In the video, we will also discuss some of the key factors that can lead to the success or failure of electroporation experiments.

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Using the Gene Pulser MXcell Electroporation System to Transfect Primary Cells with High Efficiency at JoVE.com

Using the Gene Pulser MXcell Electroporation System to Transfect Primary Cells with High Efficiency

This procedure shows how to use the Gene Pulser MXcell electroporation system to rapidly and easily identify the best electroporation conditions for mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs) or other primary cells. Considerations for troubleshooting are also discussed in the associated video.

It is becoming increasingly apparent that electroporation is the most effective way to introduce plasmid DNA or siRNA into primary cells. The Gene Pulser ...

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24.1K Views.  Bio-Rad Laboratories, Inc.. This procedure shows how to use the Gene Pulser MXcell electroporation system to rapidly and easily identify the best electroporation conditions for mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs) or other primary cells. Considerations for troubleshooting are also discussed in the associated video.

Video: Using the Gene Pulser MXcell Electroporation System to Transfect Primary Cells with High Efficiency

Electroporation of Mycobacteria

High efficiency transformation is a major limitation in the study of mycobacteria. The genus Mycobacterium can be difficult to transform; this is mainly caused by the thick and waxy cell wall, but is compounded by the fact that most molecular techniques have been developed for distantly-related species such as Escherichia coli and Bacillus subtilis. In spite of these obstacles, mycobacterial plasmids have been identified and DNA transformation of many mycobacterial species have now been described. The most successful method for introducing DNA into mycobacteria is electroporation. Many parameters contribute to successful transformation; these include the species/strain, the nature of the transforming DNA, the selectable marker used, the growth medium, and the  conditions for the electroporation pulse. Optimized methods for the transformation of both slow- and fast-grower are detailed here. Transformation efficiencies for different mycobacterial species and with various selectable markers are reported.

Mycobacterial pathogenic strategies remain poorly understood. The slow growth rate of most species, the impenetrable nature of the cell-wall, and the hazards of working with pathogens make mycobacteria difficult to study and are largely responsible for our poor understanding of these organisms. In this video we will demonstrate the technique of electroporation, which involves subjecting cells to a brief high electrical impulse to allow the entry of DNA. It is the most widely used method for introducing DNA into mycobacterial cells.

High efficiency transformation is a major limitation in the study of mycobacteria. The genus Mycobacterium can be difficult to transform; this is mainly ...

The Preparation of Primary Hematopoietic Cell Cultures From Murine Bone Marrow for Electroporation

It is becoming increasingly apparent that electroporation is the most effective way to introduce plasmid DNA or siRNA into primary cells. The Gene Pulser MXcell  electroporation system and Gene Pulser  electroporation buffer were specifically developed to transfect nucleic acids into mammalian cells and difficult-to-transfect cells, such as primary and stem cells.This video demonstrates how to establish primary hematopoietic cell cultures from murine bone marrow, and then prepare them for electroporation in the MXcell system. We begin by isolating femur and tibia. Bone marrow from both femur and tibia are then harvested and cultures are established. Cultured bone marrow cells are then transfected and analyzed.

This procedure describes how to establish primary hematopoietic cell cultures from murine bone marrow and is followed by transfection using the Gene Pulser MXCell electroporation system.

In utero and ex vivo Electroporation for Gene Expression in Mouse Retinal Ganglion Cells

The retina and its sole output neuron, the retinal ganglion cell (RGC), comprise an excellent model in which to examine biological questions such as cell differentiation, axon guidance, retinotopic organization and synapse formation[1]. One drawback is the inability to efficiently and reliably manipulate gene expression in RGCs in vivo, especially in the otherwise accessible murine visual pathways. Transgenic mice can be used to manipulate gene expression, but this approach is often expensive, time consuming, and can produce unwanted side effects. In chick, in ovo electroporation is used to manipulate gene expression in RGCs for examining retina and RGC development. Although similar electroporation techniques have been developed in neonatal mouse pups[2], adult rats[3], and embryonic murine retinae in vitro[4], none of these strategies allow full characterization of RGC development and axon projections in vivo. To this end, we have developed two applications of electroporation, one in utero and the other ex vivo, to specifically target embryonic murine RGCs[5, 6]. 
With in utero retinal electroporation, we can misexpress or downregulate specific genes in RGCs and follow their axon projections through the visual pathways in vivo, allowing examination of guidance decisions at intermediate targets, such as the optic chiasm, or at target regions, such as the lateral geniculate nucleus. Perturbing gene expression in a subset of RGCs in an otherwise wild-type background facilitates an understanding of gene function throughout the retinal pathway. Additionally, we have developed a companion technique for analyzing RGC axon growth in vitro. We electroporate embryonic heads ex vivo, collect and incubate the whole retina, then prepare explants from these retinae several days later. Retinal explants can be used in a variety of in vitro assays in order to examine the response of electroporated RGC axons to guidance cues or other factors. In sum, this set of techniques enhances our ability to misexpress or downregulate genes in RGCs and should greatly aid studies examining RGC development and axon projections.

In utero and ex vivo Electroporation for Gene Expression in Mouse Retinal Ganglion Cells

Here we present two techniques for manipulating gene expression in murine retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) by in utero and ex vivo electroporation. These techniques enable one to examine how alterations in gene expression affect RGC development, axon guidance, and functional properties.

The retina and its sole output neuron, the retinal ganglion cell (RGC), comprise an excellent model in which to examine biological questions such as cell ...

Primary Culture and Plasmid Electroporation of the Murine Organ of Corti. 

In all mammals, the sensory epithelium for audition is located along the spiraling organ of Corti that resides within the conch shaped cochlea of the inner ear (fig 1). Hair cells in the developing cochlea, which are the mechanosensory cells of the auditory system, are aligned in one row of inner hair cells and three (in the base and mid-turns) to four (in the apical turn) rows of outer hair cells that span the length of the organ of Corti. Hair cells transduce sound-induced mechanical vibrations of the basilar membrane into neural impulses that the brain can interpret. Most cases of sensorineural hearing loss are caused by death or dysfunction of cochlear hair cells.
An increasingly essential tool in auditory research is the isolation and in vitro culture of the organ explant 1,2,9. Once isolated, the explants may be utilized in several ways to provide information regarding normative, anomalous, or therapeutic physiology. Gene expression, stereocilia motility, cell and molecular biology, as well as biological approaches for hair cell regeneration are examples of experimental applications of organ of Corti explants.
This protocol describes a method for the isolation and culture of the organ of Corti from neonatal mice. The accompanying video includes stepwise directions for the isolation of the temporal bone from mouse pups, and subsequent isolation of the cochlea, spiral ligament, and organ of Corti. Once isolated, the sensory epithelium can be plated and cultured in vitro in its entirety, or as a further dissected micro-isolate that lacks the spiral limbus and spiral ganglion neurons. Using this method, primary explants can be maintained for 7-10 days. As an example of the utility of this procedure, organ of Corti explants will be electroporated with an exogenous DsRed reporter gene. This method provides an improvement over other published methods because it provides reproducible, unambiguous, and stepwise directions for the isolation, microdissection, and primary culture of the organ of Corti.

Primary Culture and Plasmid Electroporation of the Murine Organ of Corti.

This procedure describes a method for the isolation and culture of the murine organ of Corti with or without the spiral limbus and spiral ganglion neurons. We also demonstrate a method for the expression of an exogenous reporter gene in the organ of Corti explant by electroporation.

In all mammals, the sensory epithelium for audition is located along the spiraling organ of Corti that resides within the conch shaped cochlea of the ...

Using an Automated Cell Counter to Simplify Gene Expression Studies: siRNA Knockdown of IL-4 Dependent Gene Expression in Namalwa Cells

The use of siRNA mediated gene knockdown is continuing to be an important tool in studies of gene expression.  siRNA studies are being conducted not only to study the effects of downregulating single genes, but also to interrogate signaling pathways and other complex interaction networks.  These pathway analyses require both the use of relevant cellular models and methods that cause less perturbation to the cellular physiology.  Electroporation is increasingly being used as an effective way to introduce siRNA and other nucleic acids into difficult to transfect cell lines and primary cells without altering the signaling pathway under investigation. There are multiple critical steps to a successful siRNA experiment, and there are ways to simplify the work while improving the data quality at several experimental stages.  To help you get started with your siRNA mediated gene knockdown project, we will demonstrate how to perform a pathway study complete from collecting and counting the cells prior to electroporation through post transfection real-time PCR gene expression analysis.  The following study investigates the role of the transcriptional activator STAT6 in IL-4 dependent gene expression of CCL17 in a Burkitt lymphoma cell line (Namalwa).  The techniques demonstrated are useful for a wide range of siRNA-based experiments on both adherent and suspension cells.  We will also show how to streamline cell counting with the TC10 automated cell counter, how to electroporate multiple samples simultaneously using the MXcell electroporation system, and how to simultaneously assess RNA quality and quantity with the Experion automated electrophoresis system.

This procedure describes a quick and easy workflow to introduce siRNA into difficult to transfect cell lines and follow gene expression by real-time PCR. Use of an automated cell counter, multi-well electroporation plate, and automated electrophoresis station provide quick and reliable results without the need for expensive robotic handling.

The use of siRNA mediated gene knockdown is continuing to be an important tool in studies of gene expression.  siRNA studies are being conducted not only ...

Quantification of dsDNA using the Hitachi F-7000 Fluorescence Spectrophotometer and PicoGreen Dye

Quantification of DNA, especially in small concentrations, is an important task with a wide range of biological applications including standard molecular biology assays such as synthesis and purification of DNA, diagnostic applications such as quantification of DNA amplification products, and detection of DNA molecules in drug preparations. During this video we will demonstrate the capability of the Hitachi F-7000 Fluorescence Spectrophotometer equipped with a Micro Plate Reader accessory to perform dsDNA quantification using Molecular Probes Quant-it PicoGreen dye reagent kit.
The F-7000 Fluorescence Spectrophotometer offers high sensitivity and high speed measurements. It is a highly flexible system capable of measuring fluorescence, luminescence, and phosphorescence. Several measuring modes are available, including wavelength scan, time scan, photometry and 3-D scan measurement. The spectrophotometer has sensitivity in the range of 50 picomoles of fluorescein when using a 300 &#956;L sample volume in the microplate, and is capable of measuring scan speeds of 60,000 nm/minute. It also has a wide dynamic range of up to 5 orders of magnitude which allows for the use of calibration curves over a wide range of concentrations. The optical system uses all reflective optics for maximum energy and sensitivity. The standard wavelength range is 200 to 750 nm, and can be extended to 900 nm when using one of the optional near infrared photomultipliers. The system allows optional temperature control for the plate reader from 5 to 60 degrees Celsius using an optional external temperature controlled liquid circulator. The microplate reader allows for the use of 96 well microplates, and the measuring speed for 96 wells is less than 60 seconds when using the kinetics mode.
Software controls for the F-7000 and Microplate Reader are also highly flexible. Samples may be set in either column or row formats, and any combination of wells may be chosen for sample measurements. This allows for optimal utilization of the microplate. Additionally, the software allows importing micro plate sample configurations created in Excel and saved in comma separated values, or "csv" format. Microplate measuring configurations can be saved and recalled by the software for convenience and increased productivity. Data results can be output to a standard report, to Excel, or to an optional Report Generator Program.

Demonstration of quantification of dsDNA using Molecular Probes PicoGreen dye and Hitachi F-7000 Fluorescence Spectrophotometer equipped with a microplate reader accessory.

Quantification of DNA, especially in small concentrations, is an important task with a wide range of biological applications including standard molecular ...

siRNA Screening to Identify Ubiquitin and Ubiquitin-like System Regulators of Biological Pathways in Cultured Mammalian Cells

Post-translational modification of proteins with ubiquitin and ubiquitin-like molecules (UBLs) is emerging as a dynamic cellular signaling network that regulates diverse biological pathways including the hypoxia response, proteostasis, the DNA damage response and transcription.&#160; To better understand how UBLs regulate pathways relevant to human disease, we have compiled a human siRNA &#8220;ubiquitome&#8221; library consisting of 1,186 siRNA duplex pools targeting all known and predicted components of UBL system pathways. This library can be screened against a range of cell lines expressing reporters of diverse biological pathways to determine which UBL components act as positive or negative regulators of the pathway in question.&#160; Here, we describe a protocol utilizing this library to identify ubiquitome-regulators of the HIF1A-mediated cellular response to hypoxia using a transcription-based luciferase reporter.&#160; An initial assay development stage is performed to establish suitable screening parameters of the cell line before performing the screen in three stages: primary, secondary and tertiary/deconvolution screening. &#160;The use of targeted over whole genome siRNA libraries is becoming increasingly popular as it offers the advantage of reporting only on members of the pathway with which the investigators are most interested.&#160; Despite inherent limitations of siRNA screening, in particular false-positives caused by siRNA off-target effects, the identification of genuine novel regulators of the pathways in question outweigh these shortcomings, which can be overcome by performing a series of carefully undertaken control experiments.

Here, we describe a methodology to perform a targeted siRNA &#8220;ubiquitome&#8221; screen to identify novel ubiquitin and ubiquitin-like regulators of the HIF1A-mediated cellular response to hypoxia.&#160; This can be adapted to any biological pathway where a robust read out of reporter activity is available.

Post-translational modification of proteins with ubiquitin and ubiquitin-like molecules (UBLs) is emerging as a dynamic cellular signaling network that ...

Reverse Genetic Morpholino Approach Using Cardiac Ventricular Injection to Transfect Multiple Difficult-to-target Tissues in the Zebrafish Larva

The zebrafish is an important model to understand the cell and molecular biology of organ and appendage regeneration. However, molecular strategies to employ reverse genetics have not yet been adequately developed to assess gene function in regeneration or tissue homeostasis during larval stages after zebrafish embryogenesis, and several tissues within the zebrafish larva are difficult to target. Intraventricular injections of gene-specific morpholinos offer an alternative method for the current inability to genomically target zebrafish genes in a temporally controlled manner at these stages. This method allows for complete dispersion and subsequent incorporation of the morpholino into various tissues throughout the body, including structures that were formerly impossible to reach such as those in the larval caudal fin, a structure often used to noninvasively research tissue regeneration. Several genes activated during larval finfold regeneration are also present in regenerating adult vertebrate tissues, so the larva is a useful model to understand regeneration in adults. This morpholino dispersion method allows for the quick and easy identification of genes required for the regeneration of larval tissues as well as other physiological phenomena regulating tissue homeostasis after embryogenesis. Therefore, this delivery method provides a currently needed strategy for temporal control to the evaluation of gene function after embryogenesis.&#160;

An adaptable reverse genetic method for zebrafish to assess gene function during later stages of development and physiological homeostasis such as tissue regeneration using intraventricular injections of gene-specific morpholinos.

The zebrafish is an important model to understand the cell and molecular biology of organ and appendage regeneration. However, molecular strategies to ...

High Efficiency Differentiation of Human Pluripotent Stem Cells to Cardiomyocytes and Characterization by Flow Cytometry

There is an urgent need to develop approaches for repairing the damaged heart, discovering new therapeutic drugs that do not have toxic effects on the heart, and improving strategies to accurately model heart disease. The potential of exploiting human induced pluripotent stem cell (hiPSC) technology to generate cardiac muscle &#8220;in a dish&#8221; for these applications continues to generate high enthusiasm. In recent years, the ability to efficiently generate cardiomyogenic cells from human pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs) has greatly improved, offering us new opportunities to model very early stages of human cardiac development not otherwise accessible. In contrast to many previous methods, the cardiomyocyte differentiation protocol described here does not require cell aggregation or the addition of Activin A or BMP4 and robustly generates cultures of cells that are highly positive for cardiac troponin I and T (TNNI3, TNNT2), iroquois-class homeodomain protein IRX-4 (IRX4), myosin regulatory light chain 2, ventricular/cardiac muscle isoform (MLC2v) and myosin regulatory light chain 2, atrial isoform (MLC2a) by day 10 across all human embryonic stem cell (hESC) and hiPSC lines tested to date. Cells can be passaged and maintained for more than 90 days in culture. The strategy is technically simple to implement and cost-effective. Characterization of cardiomyocytes derived from pluripotent cells often includes the analysis of reference markers, both at the mRNA and protein level. For protein analysis, flow cytometry is a powerful analytical tool for assessing quality of cells in culture and determining subpopulation homogeneity. However, technical variation in sample preparation can significantly affect quality of flow cytometry data. Thus, standardization of staining protocols should facilitate comparisons among various differentiation strategies. Accordingly, optimized staining protocols for the analysis of IRX4, MLC2v, MLC2a, TNNI3, and TNNT2 by flow cytometry are described.

The article describes the detailed methodology to efficiently differentiate human pluripotent stem cells into cardiomyocytes by selectively modulating the Wnt pathway, followed by flow cytometry analysis of reference markers to assess homogeneity and identity of the population.

There is an urgent need to develop approaches for repairing the damaged heart, discovering new therapeutic drugs that do not have toxic effects on the ...

Transfecting RAW264.7 Cells with a Luciferase Reporter Gene

Transfection of desired genetic materials into cells is an inevitable procedure in biomedical research studies. While numerous methods have been described, certain types of cells are resistant to many of these methods and yield low transfection efficiency1, potentially hindering research in those cell types. In this protocol, we present an optimized transfection procedure to introduce luciferase reporter genes as a plasmid DNA into the RAW264.7 macrophage cell line. Two different types of transfection reagents (lipid-based and polyamine-based) are described, and important notes are given throughout the protocol to ensure that the RAW264.7 cells are minimally altered by the transfection procedure and any experimental data obtained are the direct results of the experimental treatment. While transfection efficiency may not be higher compared to other transfection methods, the described procedure is robust enough for detecting luciferase signal in RAW264.7 without changing the physiological response of the cells to stimuli.

Transfection into the macrophage cell line, RAW264.7, is difficult due to the cell&#8217;s natural response against foreign materials. We described here a gentle yet robust procedure for transfecting luciferase reporter genes into RAW264.7 cells.