This work was supported by the Sheikh Zayed Institute for Pediatric Surgical Innovation (RAC Awards #30000174 and 30001489).

<ol>
	<li>Massoud, T. F., Gambhir, S. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Molecular+imaging+in+living+subjects:+seeing+fundamental+biological+processes+in+a+new+light.">Molecular imaging in living subjects: seeing fundamental biological processes in a new light.</a> Genes Dev. 17, 545-580 (2003).</li><li>Mankoff, D. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+Definition+of+Molecular+Imaging.">A Definition of Molecular Imaging.</a> J Nucl Med. 48 (6), 18N-21N (2007).</li><li>James, M. L., Gambhir, S. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+Molecular+Imaging+Primer:+Modalities,+Imaging+Agents,+and+Applications.">A Molecular Imaging Primer: Modalities, Imaging Agents, and Applications.</a> Phys Rev. 92, 897-965 (2012).</li><li>Cao, W., Chen, X. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Multimodality+Molecular+Imaging+of+Tumor+Angiogenesis.">Multimodality Molecular Imaging of Tumor Angiogenesis.</a> J Nucl Med. 49 (2), 113S-129S (2008).</li><li>Heinrich, J. L., Berseth, P. A., Long, J. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Molecular+Prussian+Blue+analogues:+synthesis+and+structure+of+cubic+Cr4Co4(CN)12+and+Co8(CN)12+clusters.">Molecular Prussian Blue analogues: synthesis and structure of cubic Cr4Co4(CN)12 and Co8(CN)12 clusters.</a> Chem Commun. 11, 1231-1232 (1998).</li><li>. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Molecular Imaging and Contrast Agent Database (MICAD). , (2004).</li><li>Zhu, D., Liu, F., Ma, L., Liu, D., Wang, Z. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Nanoparticle-Based+Systems+for+T1-Weighted+Magnetic+Resonance+Imaging+Contrast+Agents.">Nanoparticle-Based Systems for T1-Weighted Magnetic Resonance Imaging Contrast Agents.</a> Int J Mol Sci. 14 (5), 10607-1010 (2013).</li><li>Bartolini, M. E., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=An+investigation+of+the+toxicity+of+gadolinium+based+MRI+contrast+agents+using+neutron+activation+analysis.">An investigation of the toxicity of gadolinium based MRI contrast agents using neutron activation analysis.</a> Magn. Reson. Imaging. 21 (5), 541-544 (2003).</li><li>Adel, B., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Histological+validation+of+iron-oxide+and+gadolinium+based+MRI+contrast+agents+in+experimental+atherosclerosis:+The+do's+and+don't's.">Histological validation of iron-oxide and gadolinium based MRI contrast agents in experimental atherosclerosis: The do's and don't's.</a> Atherosclerosis. 225 (2), 274-280 (2012).</li><li>Dumont, M. F., Yadavilli, S., Sze, R. W., Nazarian, J., Fernandes, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Manganese-containing+Prussian+blue+nanoparticles+for+imaging+of+pediatric+brain+tumors.">Manganese-containing Prussian blue nanoparticles for imaging of pediatric brain tumors.</a> Int J Nanomedicine. 9, 2581-2595 (2014).</li><li>Dumont, M. F., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Biofunctionalized+gadolinium-containing+prussian+blue+nanoparticles+as+multimodal+molecular+imaging+agents.">Biofunctionalized gadolinium-containing prussian blue nanoparticles as multimodal molecular imaging agents.</a> Bioconjug Chem. 25 (1), 129-137 (2014).</li><li>Yang, L., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Nephrogenic+Systemic+Fibrosis+and+Class+Labeling+of+Gadolinium-based+Contrast+Agents+by+the+Food+and+Drug+Administration.">Nephrogenic Systemic Fibrosis and Class Labeling of Gadolinium-based Contrast Agents by the Food and Drug Administration.</a> Radiology. 265 (1), 248-253 (2012).</li><li>Mendonca-Dias, M. H., Gaggelli, E., Lauterbur, P. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Paramagnetic+contrast+agents+in+nuclear+magnetic+resonance+medical+imaging.">Paramagnetic contrast agents in nuclear magnetic resonance medical imaging.</a> Sem in Nuc Med. 13 (4), 364-376 (1983).</li><li>Izrailev, S., Stepaniants, S., Balsera, M., Oono, Y., Schulten, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Molecular+Dynamics+Study+of+Unbinding+of+the+Avidin-Biotin+Complex.">Molecular Dynamics Study of Unbinding of the Avidin-Biotin Complex.</a> Biophys. 72 (4), 1568-1581 (1997).</li><li>Chen, Z. Y., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Advance+of+Molecular+Imaging+Technology+and+Targeted+Imaging+Agent+in+Imaging+and+Therapy.">Advance of Molecular Imaging Technology and Targeted Imaging Agent in Imaging and Therapy.</a> Biomed Res Int. 2014, 1-12 (2014).</li><li>Weissleder, R., Pittet, M. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Imaging+in+the+era+of+molecular+oncology.">Imaging in the era of molecular oncology.</a> Nature. 452 (7187), 580-589 (2008).</li><li>Jaiswal, J. K., Mattoussi, H., Mauro, J. M., Simon, S. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Long-term+multiple+color+imaging+of+live+cells+using+quantum+dot+bioconjugates.">Long-term multiple color imaging of live cells using quantum dot bioconjugates.</a> Nature Biotech. 21 (1), 47-51 (2002).</li><li>Mangrum, W., Christianson, K., Duncan, S., Hoang, P., Song, A., Merkle, E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Duke Review of MRI Principles. 304, 304 (2012).</li><li>Shokouhimehr, M., Soehnlen, E. S., Hao, J., Griswold, M., Flask, C., Fan, X., Basilion, J. P., Basu, S., Huang, S. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Dual+purpose+prussian+blue+nanoparticles+for+cellular+imaging+and+drug+delivery:+a+new+generation+of+T1-weighted+MRI+contrast+and+small+molecule+delivery+agents.">Dual purpose prussian blue nanoparticles for cellular imaging and drug delivery: a new generation of T1-weighted MRI contrast and small molecule delivery agents.</a> J. Mater. Chem. 20, 5251-5259 (2010).</li><li>Hoffman, H. A., Chakrabarti, L., Dumont, M. F., Sandler, A. D., Fernandes, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Prussian+blue+nanoparticles+for+laser-induced+photothermal+therapy+of+tumors.">Prussian blue nanoparticles for laser-induced photothermal therapy of tumors.</a> RSC Adv. 4 (56), 29729-29734 (2014).</li></ol>

The authors have nothing to disclose.

This article has presented the methods for the synthesis of a novel class of multimodal, molecular imaging agents based on biofunctionalized Prussian blue nanoparticles. The molecular imaging modalities incorporated into the nanoparticles are fluorescence imaging and molecular MRI, due to their complementary features. The biofunctionalized Prussian blue nanoparticles have a core-shell design. The key steps in the synthesis of these nanoparticles are the: 1) one-pot synthesis which yields the cores that are comprised of P...

Molecular imaging is the non-invasive and targeted visualization of biological processes at the cellular, subcellular, and molecular levels1. Molecular imaging permits a specimen to remain in its native microenvironment while its endogenous pathways and mechanisms are assessed in real-time. Typically, molecular imaging involves the administration of an exogenous imaging agent in the form of a small molecule, macromolecule, or nanoparticle to visualize, target, and trace relevant physiological processes being studied2. The various imaging modalities that have been explored in molecular imaging include MRI, CT, PET, SPECT, ultrasound, photoacoustics, Raman spectroscopy, bioluminescence, fluorescence, and intravital microscopy3. Multimodal imaging is the combination of two or more imaging modalities where the combination enhances the ability to visualize and characterize various biological processes and events4. Multimodal imaging exploits the strengths of the individual imaging techniques, while compensating for their individual limitations3.
This article presents the protocol for the synthesis of biofunctionalized Prussian blue nanoparticles (PB NPs) - a novel class of multimodal, molecular imaging agents. The PB NPs are utilized for fluorescence imaging and molecular MRI. PB is a pigment consisting of alternating iron (II) and iron (III) atoms in a face-centered cubic network (Figure 1). The PB lattice is comprised of linear cyanide ligands in a FeII- CN - FeIII linkage that incorporates cations to balance charges within its three-dimensional network5. The ability of PB to incorporate cations into its lattice is exploited by separately loading gadolinium and manganese ions into the PB NPs for MRI contrast.
The rationale for pursuing a nanoparticle design for MRI contrast is because of the advantages this design offers relative to current MRI contrast agents. The vast majority of US FDA-approved MRI contrast agents are gadolinium chelates that are paramagnetic in nature and provide positive contrast by the spin-lattice relaxation mechanism6,7,8. As compared to a single gadolinium-chelate that provides low signal intensity on its own, the incorporation of multiple gadolinium ions within the PB lattice of the nanoparticles provides enhanced signal intensity (positive contrast)3,9. Further, the presence of multiple gadolinium ions within the PB lattice increases the overall spin density and the magnitude of paramagnetism of the nanoparticles, which disturbs the local magnetic field in its vicinity, thereby generating negative contrast by the spin-spin relaxation mechanism. Thus the gadolinium-containing nanoparticles function both as T1 (positive) and T2 (negative) contrast agents10,11.
In a subset of patients with impaired renal function, the administration of gadolinium-based contrast agents has been linked to the development of nephrogenic systemic fibrosis8,12, 13. This observation has prompted investigations into the use of alternative paramagnetic ions as contrast agents for MRI. Therefore, the versatile design of the nanoparticles is adapted to incorporate manganese ions within the PB lattice. Similar to gadolinium-chelates, manganese-chelates are also paramagnetic and are typically used to provide positive signal intensity in MRI7,14. As with gadolinium-containing PB NPs, the manganese-containing PB NPs also function as T1 (positive) and T2 (negative) contrast agents.
To incorporate fluorescence imaging capabilities, the nanoparticle &#8220;cores&#8221; are coated with a &#8220;biofunctional&#8221; shell consisting of the fluorescently-labeled glycoprotein avidin (Figure 1). Avidin not only enables fluorescence imaging, but also serves as a docking platform for biotinylated ligands that target specific cells and tissue. The avidin&#8211;biotin bond is one of the strongest known, non-covalent bonds characterized by extremely strong binding affinity between avidin and biotin15. The attachment of biotinylated ligands to the avidin-coated PB NPs confers molecular targeting capabilities to the PB NPs.
The motivation for pursuing fluorescence and MR imaging using PB NPs is because these imaging modalities possess complementary features. Fluorescence imaging is one of the most widely used optical molecular imaging techniques, and allows for the simultaneous visualization of multiple objects at high sensitivities1,16,17. Fluorescence imaging is a safe, non-invasive modality but is associated with low depths of penetration and spatial resolutions1,3,16. On the other hand, MRI generates high temporal and spatial resolution non-invasively and without a need for ionizing radiation1,3,16. However MRI suffers from low sensitivity. Therefore fluorescence imaging and MRI were selected as the molecular imaging techniques due to their complementary features of depth penetration, sensitivity, and spatial resolution.
This article presents the protocol for the synthesis and biofunctionalization of the PB NPs, gadolinium-containing PB NPs (GdPB), and manganese-containing PB NPs (MnPB)10,11. The following methods are described: 1) measurement of size, charge, and temporal stability of the nanoparticles, 2) evaluation of cytotoxicity of the nanoparticles, 3) measurement of MRI relaxivities, and 4) utilization of the nanoparticles for fluorescence and molecular MR imaging of a population of targeted cells in vitro. These results demonstrate the potential of the NPs for use as multimodal, molecular imaging agents in vivo.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="854">
	<tbody>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:455px;">Name of Material/ Equipment</td>
			<td style="width:115px;">Company</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">Catalog Number</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">Comments/Description</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Potassium hexacyanoferrate (II) trihydrate (K4Fe(CN)6 &#183; 3H2O)</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>P9387</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Manganese (II) chloride tetrahydrate (MnCl2 &#183; 4H2O)</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>221279</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Gadolinium (III) nitrate hexahydrate (Gd(NO3)3 &#183; 6H2O)</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>211591</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Iron (III) chloride hexahydrate (FeCl3 &#183; 6H2O)</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>236489</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Sodium chloride (NaCl)</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>S9888</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Anti-NG2 Chondroitin Sulfate Proteoglycan, Biotin Conjugate Antibody</td>
			<td>Millipore</td>
			<td>AB5320</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Biotinylated Anti-Human Eotaxin-3</td>
			<td>Peprotech</td>
			<td>500-P156GBT</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Neuro-2a Cell Line</td>
			<td>ATCC</td>
			<td>CCL-131</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">BSG D10 Cell Line</td>
			<td>Lab stock</td>
			<td>---</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">OE21 Cell Line</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>96062201</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">SUDIPG1 Neurospheres</td>
			<td>Lab stock</td>
			<td>---</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Eol-1 Cell Line</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>94042252</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Poly(L-lysine) hydrobromide</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>P1399</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Formaldehyde</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>F8775</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Bovine serum albumin</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>A2153</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Aminoactinomycin D</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>A9400</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Triton X-100</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>X100</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">CellTrace Calcein Red-Orange, AM</td>
			<td>Life Technologies</td>
			<td>C34851</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Avidin-Alexa Fluor 488</td>
			<td>Life Technologies</td>
			<td>A21370</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Centrifuge</td>
			<td>Eppendorf</td>
			<td>5424</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Peristaltic Pump</td>
			<td>Instech</td>
			<td>P270</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Zetasizer Nano ZS</td>
			<td>Malvern</td>
			<td>ZEN3600</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Sonicator</td>
			<td>QSonica</td>
			<td>Q125</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Hot Plate/Magnetic Stirrer</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>97042-642</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Ultra Clean Aluminum Foil</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>89107-732</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Vortex Mixer</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>58816-121</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">1.7 mL conical microcentrifuge tubes</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>87003-295</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">15 mL conical centrifuge tubes</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>21008-918</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Tube holders</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>82024-342</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Disposable plastic cuvettes</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>7000-590 (/586)</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Zetasizer capillary cell</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>DTS1070</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Centrifugal Filters, 0.2 micrometer spin column</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>82031-356</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">96-well cell culture tray</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>29442-056</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Trypsin EDTA 0.25% solution 1X</td>
			<td>JR Scientific</td>
			<td>82702</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Cell Culture Grade PBS (1X)</td>
			<td>Life Technologies</td>
			<td>10010023</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">XTT Cell Proliferation Assay Kit</td>
			<td>Trevigen</td>
			<td>4891-025-K</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">T75 Flask</td>
			<td>89092-700</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Dulbecco&#39;s Modified Eagle&#39;s Medium</td>
			<td>Biowhitaker</td>
			<td>12-604Q</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Fetal Bovine Serum</td>
			<td>Life Technologies</td>
			<td>10437-010</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Pen-Strep 1X</td>
			<td>Life Technologies</td>
			<td>15070063</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Fluoview FV1200 Confocal Laser Scanning Microscope</td>
			<td>Olympus</td>
			<td>FV1200</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Chambered Microscope Slides</td>
			<td>Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td>154534</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Micro Cover Glasses, Square, No. 1.5</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>48366-227</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Microscope Slides</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>16004-368</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">RPMI</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>R8758&#160;</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Agarose</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>A9539&#160;</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">FACSCalibur Flow Cytometer</td>
			<td>BD Biosciences</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">3 T Clinical MRI Magnet</td>
			<td>GE Healthcare</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">100 mL round-bottom flask</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

biofunctionalized prussian blue nanoparticles for multimodal molecular imaging applications

Multimodal, molecular imaging allows the visualization of biological processes at cellular, subcellular, and molecular-level resolutions using multiple, complementary imaging techniques. These imaging agents facilitate the real-time assessment of pathways and mechanisms in vivo, which enhance both diagnostic and therapeutic efficacy. This article presents the protocol for the synthesis of biofunctionalized Prussian blue nanoparticles (PB NPs) - a novel class of agents for use in multimodal, molecular imaging applications. The imaging modalities incorporated in the nanoparticles, fluorescence imaging and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), have complementary features. The PB NPs possess a core-shell design where gadolinium and manganese ions incorporated within the interstitial spaces of the PB lattice generate MRI contrast, both in T1 and T2-weighted sequences. The PB NPs are coated with fluorescent avidin using electrostatic self-assembly, which enables fluorescence imaging. The avidin-coated nanoparticles are modified with biotinylated ligands that confer molecular targeting capabilities to the nanoparticles. The stability and toxicity of the nanoparticles are measured, as well as their MRI relaxivities. The multimodal, molecular imaging capabilities of these biofunctionalized PB NPs are then demonstrated by using them for fluorescence imaging and molecular MRI in vitro.

Using the one-pot synthesis scheme, nanoparticles of PB NPs (mean diameter 78.8 nm, polydispersity index (PDI) = 0.230; calculated by the dynamic light scattering instrument), GdPB (mean diameter 164.2 nm, PDI = 0.102), or MnPB (mean diameter 122.4 nm, PDI = 0.124) that are monodisperse (as measured by DLS) can be consistently synthesized (Figure 2A). The measured zeta potentials of the synthesized nanoparticles are less than -30 mV (Figure 2B), indicating moderate stability of the parti...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Biofunctionalized Prussian Blue Nanoparticles for Multimodal Molecular Imaging Applications at JoVE.com

Biofunctionalized Prussian Blue Nanoparticles for Multimodal Molecular Imaging Applications

This protocol describes the synthesis of biofunctionalized Prussian blue nanoparticles and their use as multimodal, molecular imaging agents. The nanoparticles have a core-shell design where gadolinium or manganese ions within the nanoparticle core generate MRI contrast. The biofunctional shell contains fluorophores for fluorescence imaging and targeting ligands for molecular targeting.

Multimodal, molecular imaging allows the visualization of biological processes at cellular, subcellular, and molecular-level resolutions using multiple, ...

biofunctionalized-prussian-blue-nanoparticles-for-multimodal

Research

JoVE Journal

Bioengineering

10.2K visualizações.  Children's National Medical Center. This protocol describes the synthesis of biofunctionalized Prussian blue nanoparticles and their use as multimodal, molecular imaging agents. The nanoparticles have a core-shell design where gadolinium or manganese ions within the nanoparticle core generate MRI contrast. The biofunctional shell contains fluorophores for fluorescence imaging and targeting ligands for molecular targeting. 

Vídeo: Biofunctionalized Prussian Blue Nanoparticles for Multimodal Molecular Imaging Applications

Viral Nanoparticles for In vivo Tumor Imaging

The use of nanomaterials has the potential to revolutionize materials science and medicine. Currently, a number of different nanoparticles are being investigated for applications in imaging and therapy. Viral nanoparticles (VNPs) derived from plants can be regarded as self-assembled bionanomaterials with defined sizes and shapes. Plant viruses under investigation in the Steinmetz lab include icosahedral particles formed by Cowpea mosaic virus (CPMV) and Brome mosaic virus (BMV), both of which are 30 nm in diameter. We are also developing rod-shaped and filamentous structures derived from the following plant viruses: Tobacco mosaic virus (TMV), which forms rigid rods with dimensions of 300 nm by 18 nm, and Potato virus X (PVX), which form filamentous particles 515 nm in length and 13 nm in width (the reader is referred to refs. 1 and 2 for further information on VNPs).
From a materials scientist's point of view, VNPs are attractive building blocks for several reasons: the particles are monodisperse, can be produced with ease on large scale in planta, are exceptionally stable, and biocompatible. Also, VNPs are "programmable" units, which can be specifically engineered using genetic modification or chemical bioconjugation methods 3. The structure of VNPs is known to atomic resolution, and modifications can be carried out with spatial precision at the atomic level4, a level of control that cannot be achieved using synthetic nanomaterials with current state-of-the-art technologies.
In this paper, we describe the propagation of CPMV, PVX, TMV, and BMV in Vigna ungiuculata and Nicotiana benthamiana plants. Extraction and purification protocols for each VNP are given. Methods for characterization of purified and chemically-labeled VNPs are described. In this study, we focus on chemical labeling of VNPs with fluorophores (e.g. Alexa Fluor 647) and polyethylene glycol (PEG). The dyes facilitate tracking and detection of the VNPs 5-10, and PEG reduces immunogenicity of the proteinaceous nanoparticles while enhancing their pharmacokinetics 8,11. We demonstrate tumor homing of PEGylated VNPs using a mouse xenograft tumor model. A combination of fluorescence imaging of tissues ex vivo using Maestro Imaging System, fluorescence quantification in homogenized tissues, and confocal microscopy is used to study biodistribution. VNPs are cleared via the reticuloendothelial system (RES); tumor homing is achieved passively via the enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect12. The VNP nanotechnology is a powerful plug-and-play technology to image and treat sites of disease in vivo. We are further developing VNPs to carry drug cargos and clinically-relevant imaging moieties, as well as tissue-specific ligands to target molecular receptors overexpressed in cancer and cardiovascular disease.

Viral Nanoparticles for In vivo Tumor Imaging

Plant viral nanoparticles (VNPs) are promising platforms for applications in biomedicine. Here, we describe the procedures for plant VNP propagation, purification, characterization, and bioconjugation. Finally, we show the application of VNPs for tumor homing and imaging using a mouse xenograft model and fluorescence imaging.

The use of nanomaterials has the potential to revolutionize materials science and medicine. Currently, a number of different nanoparticles are being ...

Wideband Optical Detector of Ultrasound for Medical Imaging Applications

Optical sensors of ultrasound are a promising alternative to piezoelectric techniques, as has been recently demonstrated in the field of optoacoustic imaging. In medical applications, one of the major limitations of optical sensing technology is its susceptibility to environmental conditions, e.g. changes in pressure and temperature, which may saturate the detection. Additionally, the clinical environment often imposes stringent limits on the size and robustness of the sensor. In this work, the combination of pulse interferometry and fiber-based optical sensing is demonstrated for ultrasound detection. Pulse interferometry enables robust performance of the readout system in the presence of rapid variations in the environmental conditions, whereas the use of all-fiber technology leads to a mechanically flexible sensing element compatible with highly demanding medical applications such as intravascular imaging. In order to achieve a short sensor length, a pi-phase-shifted fiber Bragg grating is used, which acts as a resonator trapping light over an effective length of 350 &#181;m. To enable high bandwidth, the sensor is used for sideway detection of ultrasound, which is highly beneficial in circumferential imaging geometries such as intravascular imaging. An optoacoustic imaging setup is used to determine the response of the sensor for acoustic point sources at different positions.

Optical detection of ultrasound is impractical in many imaging scenarios because it often requires stable environmental conditions. We demonstrate an optical technique for ultrasound sensing in volatile environments with miniaturization and sensitivity levels appropriate for optoacoustic imaging in restrictive scenarios, e.g. intravascular applications.

Optical sensors of ultrasound are a promising alternative to piezoelectric techniques, as has been recently demonstrated in the field of optoacoustic ...

Harmonic Nanoparticles for Regenerative Research

In this visualized experiment, protocol details are provided for in vitro labeling of human embryonic stem cells (hESC) with second harmonic generation nanoparticles (HNPs). The latter are a new family of probes recently introduced for labeling biological samples for multi-photon imaging. HNPs are capable of doubling the frequency of excitation light by the nonlinear optical process of second harmonic generation with no restriction on the excitation wavelength.
Multi-photon based methodologies for hESC differentiation into cardiac clusters (maintained as long term air-liquid cultures) are presented in detail. In particular, evidence on how to maximize the intense second harmonic (SH) emission of isolated HNPs during 3D monitoring of beating cardiac tissue in 3D is shown. The analysis of the resulting images to retrieve 3D displacement patterns is also detailed.

Protocol details are provided for in vitro labeling human embryonic stem cells with second harmonic generating nanoparticles. Methodologies for hESC investigation by multi-photon microscopy and their differentiation into cardiac clusters are also presented.

In this visualized experiment, protocol details are provided for in vitro labeling of human embryonic stem cells (hESC) with second harmonic generation ...

From Fast Fluorescence Imaging to Molecular Diffusion Law on Live Cell Membranes in a Commercial Microscope

It has become increasingly evident that the spatial distribution and the motion of membrane components like lipids and proteins are key factors in the regulation of many cellular functions. However, due to the fast dynamics and the tiny structures involved, a very high spatio-temporal resolution is required to catch the real behavior of molecules. Here we present the experimental protocol for studying the dynamics of fluorescently-labeled plasma-membrane proteins and lipids in live cells with high spatiotemporal resolution. Notably, this approach doesn&#8217;t need to track each molecule, but it calculates population behavior using all molecules in a given region of the membrane. The starting point is a fast imaging of a given region on the membrane. Afterwards, a complete spatio-temporal autocorrelation function is calculated correlating acquired images at increasing time delays, for example each 2, 3, n repetitions. It is possible to demonstrate that the width of the peak of the spatial autocorrelation function increases at increasing time delay as a function of particle movement due to diffusion. Therefore, fitting of the series of autocorrelation functions enables to extract the actual protein mean square displacement from imaging (iMSD), here presented in the form of apparent diffusivity vs average displacement. This yields a quantitative view of the average dynamics of single molecules with nanometer accuracy. By using a GFP-tagged variant of the Transferrin Receptor (TfR) and an ATTO488 labeled 1-palmitoyl-2-hydroxy-sn-glycero-3-phosphoethanolamine (PPE) it is possible to observe the spatiotemporal regulation of protein and lipid diffusion on &#181;m-sized membrane regions in the micro-to-milli-second time range.

Spatial distribution and temporal dynamics of plasma membrane proteins and lipids is a hot topic in biology. Here this issue is addressed by a spatio-temporal image fluctuation analysis that provides conceptually the same physical quantities of single particle tracking, but it uses small molecular labels and standard microscopy setups.

It has become increasingly evident that the spatial distribution and the motion of membrane components like lipids and proteins are key factors in the ...

Cell Labeling and Targeting with Superparamagnetic Iron Oxide Nanoparticles

Targeted delivery of cells and therapeutic agents would benefit a wide range of biomedical applications by concentrating the therapeutic effect at the target site while minimizing deleterious effects to off-target sites. Magnetic cell targeting is an efficient, safe, and straightforward delivery technique. Superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (SPION) are biodegradable, biocompatible, and can be endocytosed into cells to render them responsive to magnetic fields. The synthesis process involves creating magnetite (Fe3O4) nanoparticles followed by high-speed emulsification to form a poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) coating. The PLGA-magnetite SPIONs are approximately 120 nm in diameter including the approximately 10 nm diameter magnetite core. When placed in culture medium, SPIONs are naturally endocytosed by cells and stored as small clusters within cytoplasmic endosomes. These particles impart sufficient magnetic mass to the cells to allow for targeting within magnetic fields. Numerous cell sorting and targeting applications are enabled by rendering various cell types responsive to magnetic fields. SPIONs have a variety of other biomedical applications as well including use as a medical imaging contrast agent, targeted drug or gene delivery, diagnostic assays, and generation of local hyperthermia for tumor therapy or tissue soldering.

Targeted cell delivery is useful in a variety of biomedical applications. The goal of this protocol is to use superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (SPION) to label cells and thereby enable magnetic cell targeting approaches for a high degree of control over cell delivery and localization.

Targeted delivery of cells and therapeutic agents would benefit a wide range of biomedical applications by concentrating the therapeutic effect at the ...

Solid Lipid Nanoparticles (SLNs) for Intracellular Targeting Applications

Nanoparticle-based delivery vehicles have shown great promise for intracellular targeting applications, providing a mechanism to specifically alter cellular signaling and gene expression. In a previous investigation, the synthesis of ultra-small solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) for topical drug delivery and biomarker detection applications was demonstrated. SLNs are a well-studied example of a nanoparticle delivery system that has emerged as a promising drug delivery vehicle. In this study, SLNs were loaded with a fluorescent dye and used as a model to investigate particle-cell interactions. The phase inversion temperature (PIT) method was used for the synthesis of ultra-small populations of biocompatible nanoparticles. A 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenylphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay was utilized in order to establish appropriate dosing levels prior to the nanoparticle-cell interaction studies. Furthermore, primary human dermal fibroblasts and mouse dendritic cells were exposed to dye-loaded SLN over time and the interactions with respect to toxicity and particle uptake were characterized using fluorescence microscopy and flow cytometry. This study demonstrated that ultra-small SLNs, as a nanoparticle delivery system, are suitable for intracellular targeting of different cell types.

Solid Lipid Nanoparticles SLNs for Intracellular Targeting Applications

In this study, a method for synthesizing ultra-small populations of biocompatible nanoparticles was described, as well as several in vitro methods by which to assess their cellular interactions.

Nanoparticle-based delivery vehicles have shown great promise for intracellular targeting applications, providing a mechanism to specifically alter ...

Microwave-driven Synthesis of Iron Oxide Nanoparticles for Fast Detection of Atherosclerosis

A fast and reproducible microwave-driven protocol has been developed for the synthesis of neridronate-functionalized nanoparticles. Starting from the synthesis of hydrophobic nanoparticles, our method is based on an adaptation from thermal decomposition method to microwave driven synthesis. The new methodology produces a decrease in the reaction times in comparison with traditional procedures. Moreover, the use of the microwave technology increases the reproducibility of the reactions, something important from the point of view of clinical applications. The novelty of this iron oxide nanoparticle is the attachment of Neridronate. The use of this molecule leads a bisphosphonate moiety towards the outside of the nanoparticle that provides Ca2+ binding properties in vitro and selective accumulation in vivo in the atheroma plaque. The protocol allows the synthesis and plaque detection in about 3 hr since the initial synthesis from organic precursors. Their accumulation in the atherosclerotic area in less than 1 hr provides a contrast agent particularly suitable for clinical applications.

Microwave technology enables extremely fast synthesis of iron oxide nanoparticles for atherosclerosis plaque characterization. The use of an aminobisphosphonate in the external side of the nanoparticle provides a fast accumulation in the atherosclerotic area.

A fast and reproducible microwave-driven protocol has been developed for the synthesis of neridronate-functionalized nanoparticles. Starting from the ...

Multimodal Imaging and Spectroscopy Fiber-bundle Microendoscopy Platform for Non-invasive, In Vivo Tissue Analysis

Recent fiber-bundle microendoscopy techniques enable non-invasive analysis of in vivo tissue using either imaging techniques or a combination of spectroscopy techniques. Combining imaging and spectroscopy techniques into a single optical probe may provide a more complete analysis of tissue health. In this article, two dissimilar modalities are combined, high-resolution fluorescence microendoscopy imaging and diffuse reflectance spectroscopy, into a single optical probe. High-resolution fluorescence microendoscopy imaging is a technique used to visualize apical tissue micro-architecture and, although mostly a qualitative technique, has demonstrated effective real-time differentiation between neoplastic and non-neoplastic tissue. Diffuse reflectance spectroscopy is a technique which can extract tissue physiological parameters including local hemoglobin concentration, melanin concentration, and oxygen saturation. This article describes the specifications required to construct the fiber-optic probe, how to build the instrumentation, and then demonstrates the technique on in vivo human skin. This work revealed that tissue micro-architecture, specifically apical skin keratinocytes, can be co-registered with its associated physiological parameters. The instrumentation and fiber-bundle probe presented here can be optimized as either a handheld or endoscopically-compatible device for use in a variety of organ systems. Additional clinical research is needed to test the viability of this technique for different epithelial disease states.

Multimodal Imaging and Spectroscopy Fiber-bundle Microendoscopy Platform for Non-invasive, In Vivo Tissue Analysis

The assembly and use of a multimodal microendoscope is described which can co-register superficial tissue image data with tissue physiological parameters including hemoglobin concentration, melanin concentration, and oxygen saturation. This technique can be useful for evaluating tissue structure and perfusion, and can be optimized for individual needs of the investigator.

Recent fiber-bundle microendoscopy techniques enable non-invasive analysis of in vivo tissue using either imaging techniques or a combination of ...

Manufacture and Drug Delivery Applications of Silk Nanoparticles

Silk is a promising biopolymer for biomedical and pharmaceutical applications due to its outstanding mechanical properties, biocompatibility and biodegradability, as well its ability to protect and subsequently release its payload in response to a trigger. While silk can be formulated into various material formats, silk nanoparticles are emerging as promising drug delivery systems. Therefore, this article covers the procedures for reverse engineering silk cocoons to yield a regenerated silk solution that can be used to generate stable silk nanoparticles. These nanoparticles are subsequently characterized, drug loaded and explored as a potential anticancer drug delivery system. Briefly, silk cocoons are reverse engineered first by degumming the cocoons, followed by silk dissolution and clean up, to yield an aqueous silk solution. Next, the regenerated silk solution is subjected to nanoprecipitation to yield silk nanoparticles &#8211; a simple but powerful method that generates uniform nanoparticles. The silk nanoparticles are characterized according to their size, zeta potential, morphology and stability in aqueous media, as well as their ability to entrap a chemotherapeutic payload and kill human breast cancer cells. Overall, the described methodology yields uniform silk nanoparticles that can be readily explored for a myriad of applications, including their use as a potential nanomedicine.

Nanoparticles are emerging as promising drug delivery systems for a broad range of indications. Here, we describe a simple yet powerful method to manufacture silk nanoparticles using reverse engineered Bombyx mori silk. These silk nanoparticles can be readily loaded with a therapeutic payload and subsequently explored for drug delivery applications.

Silk is a promising biopolymer for biomedical and pharmaceutical applications due to its outstanding mechanical properties, biocompatibility and ...

Multimodal Volumetric Retinal Imaging by Oblique Scanning Laser Ophthalmoscopy (oSLO) and Optical Coherence Tomography (OCT)

While fluorescence imaging is widely used in ophthalmology, a large field of view (FOV) three-dimensional (3D) fluorescence retinal image is still a big challenge with the state-of-the-art retinal imaging modalities because they would require z-stacking to compile a volumetric dataset. Newer optical coherence tomography (OCT) and OCT angiography (OCTA) systems overcome these restrictions to provide three-dimensional (3D) anatomical and vascular images, but the dye-free nature of OCT cannot visualize leakage indicative of vascular dysfunction. This protocol describes a novel oblique scanning laser ophthalmoscopy (oSLO) technique that provides 3D volumetric fluorescence retinal imaging. The setup of the imaging system generates the oblique scanning by a dove tail slider and aligns the final imaging system at an angle to detect fluorescent cross-sectional images. The system uses the laser scanning method, and therefore, allows an easy incorporation of OCT as a complementary volumetric structural imaging modality. In vivo imaging on rat retina is demonstrated here. Fluorescein solution is intravenously injected to produce volumetric fluorescein angiography (vFA).

Multimodal Volumetric Retinal Imaging by Oblique Scanning Laser Ophthalmoscopy oSLO and Optical Coherence Tomography OCT

Here, we present a protocol to get a large field of view (FOV) three-dimensional (3D) fluorescence and OCT retinal image by using a novel imaging multimodal platform. We will introduce the system setup, the method of alignment, and the operational protocols. In vivo imaging will be demonstrated, and representative results will be provided.

While fluorescence imaging is widely used in ophthalmology, a large field of view (FOV) three-dimensional (3D) fluorescence retinal image is still a big ...