Research was funded by NIH 1R15GM094770.

1. Colony Isolation and Fixation
<ol>
<li>Incubate 300 colonies on agar medium for the indicated time (an isolated colony should be 1-2 mm in diameter).</li>
<li>Remove colony (face up) and underlying medium using a narrow spatula.</li>
<li>Place several drops of 2% agar 42&deg;C on a microscope slide using 1 mL pipetman tip and immediately place colony on agar face up before it solidifies.</li>
<li>Place several drops of 2% agar 42&deg;C on colony and allow to solidify.</li>
<li>Wear gloves for all steps through the remainder of this protocol</li>
<li>Trim block with razor blade and place them in a 3.5 mL borosilicate screw-cap vial containing 2% paraformaldehyde/2% glutaraldehyde fixative for 7 days at 4&deg;C.</li>
</ol>
2. Washes and Osmium Treatment
<ol>
<li>After about 1 week, wash agar blocks on ice under chemical fume hood by incubating twice for 15 minutes with enough 0.15M sodium cacodylate (pH 7.2) to completely cover the colony (approximately 1.5 mL) then twice more for 5 minutes with the same volume of 1X OS buffer (100 mM KH2PO4 10 mM MgCl2, pH 6.0).</li>
<li>Add the same volume of 1% OsO4 [2 mL OsO4 (2%) + 2 mL 2x OS Buffer] to vials (on ice) to cover the agar blocks under chemical fume hood for 1 hour then wash twice with the same amount of 1X OS buffer for 10 minutes each.</li>
<li>Leave vials overnight at 4&deg;C in 1X OS buffer.</li>
<li>Fixative and all washes in this step are disposed of as hazardous waste. All pipettes containing OsO4 were rinsed 3X with vegetable oil.</li>
</ol> 3. Wash and Dehydration
<ol>
<li>The next morning wash agar blocks twice on ice with the same volume as above of cold water for 10 minutes each using Pasteur pipette.</li>
<li>Wash sequentially with the same volume of 25%,50%,75%,95% ethanol for 10 minutes each followed by 2 washes with 100% ethanol for 10 minutes. Leave overnight at 4&deg;C in 100% ethanol.</li>
<li>All washes in this step are disposed of as hazardous waste.</li>
</ol>
4. Spurr's Preparation
<ol>
<li>The following morning (as early as possible) weigh the following solutions (EM Sciences) into a disposable plastic beaker under a fume hood to prepare Spurr's reagent. For all subsequent work using this reagent, continue to use a fume hood. 
(ERL 4221 solution 5 grams) 
(DER 736 solution 4 grams) 
(NSA solution 13 grams)
</li>
<li>mix these solutions (slowly) for 20 minutes in hood using a stir bar</li>
<li>Add DMAE solution 0.15 grams and stir 20 minutes as above.</li>
<li>Degas above mixture for 1-2 hrs in hood.</li>
</ol>
5. Spurr's Infiltration
<ol>
<li>As soon as Spurr's is made wash agar blocks 5 times with same volume as above of 100% room temp ethanol for 10 minutes each. After the last ethanol wash remove the ethanol using a Pasteur pipette so that the remaining ethanol just covers the agar blocks.</li>
<li>Add approximately an equal amount of Spurr's reagent (approximately 0.5 mL) and rotate vials on wheel for 15 minutes at room temperature and then allow to stand for 30 minutes. After 30 minutes remove the solution completely using a Pasteur pipette, add Spurr's to cover agar block (approximately 1.5 mL), rotate vials on wheel for 15 minutes at room temperature and allow to stand for 30 minutes. Repeat the Spurr's replacement, rotation, and incubation 3 more times.</li>
<li>After the final 30 minutes, remove Spurr's reagent and add fresh Spurr's to cover the blocks. Allow the agar blocks to stand at room temp for 4 hrs.</li>
<li>Replace the Spurr's and rotate overnight.</li>
<li>In the morning replace Spurr's and leave rotating until the following day.</li>
<li>The next morning place Spurr's in numbered silicone molds (Fisher Scientific) just to cover the bottom of molds then add agar blocks to the molds. Incubate at 60&deg;C for 4 hours</li>
<li>After 4 hrs, top off the molds, with more Spurr's and incubate at 60&deg;C overnight.</li>
<li>If after removing the blocks from molds the blocks are still slightly flexible, return to the molds and incubate an additional 2 days</li>
</ol>
6. Sectioning
<ol>
<li>A Leica Ultracut S microtome was used to cut 0.5 &mu; thick sections for light microscopy and 0.1 &mu; thin sections for transmission EM.</li>
<li>For light microscopy, as sections were cut, they were placed on a drop of dH2O, and dried on a 52&deg;C heat block. Dried sections were then stained with a drop of 1.0 % toluidine blue, 1% Sodium Borate for 5-15 seconds. After staining, the sections were immediately washed under a stream of water, dried, covered in mounting media (KPL), and a cover slip sealed over the sample.</li>
</ol>
7. Representative Results:
The broad relevance of measuring pattern formation in yeast and other microorganisms have been reviewed previously 1. Of particular note is the increased functionality of organized microbial colonies relative to disorganized communities.
The described method is a modification of a method for embedding larger specialized colonies 2, and a short description of our modifications has been published 3.
An example of a light micrograph of a section through the center of a colony of wild S. cerevisiae yeast colony is shown in Figure 1. Asci, pseudohyphae and ovoid yeast are easily distinguishable, and the region of the colony invading the underlying agar is also apparent.
An example of an electron micrograph of a laboratory strain of yeast (W303 background) is shown in Figure 2. The image is from a region of the colony containing a high frequency of sporulated cells.
<img src="/files/ftp_upload/2510/2510fig1.jpg" alt="Figure 1" /> 
Figure 1. Light microscopy of a wild yeast colony. This yeast (YPS133) was isolated recently from tree exudates 4. The colony was incubated for 6 days on YNA medium 5 prior to sectioning. Open arrows indicate representative asci, filled arrows indicate representative ovoid vegetative cells, filled arrowheads indicate chains of elongated cells (pseudohyphae) and asci. 
<img src="/files/ftp_upload/2510/2510fig2.jpg" alt="Figure 2" /> 
Figure 2. Electron microscopy of a laboratory yeast strain. The colony of SH1020 (W303 background) was incubated for 6 days on YNA medium prior to sectioning 3. Image shows a region of the section with a high frequency of asci. An arrow indicates the bi-layer structure of the spore wall.
<img src="/files/ftp_upload/2510/2510fig3.jpg" alt="Figure 3" /> 
Figure 3. Quantification of the distribution of sporulated cells in colonies: A) a grid containing 15 adjoining rectangles stacked along their long side is superimposed on the central region of an image of a colony section. The grid is scaled, while keeping its proportions constant, to just covers the top and bottom of the colony. (B &amp; C) The fraction of sporulated cells in each rectangle relative to the total cells in that rectangle is determined by visual inspection of images from 4-day old (B) and 8-day old (C) colonies. For example, the rectangle at the top of the colony (labeled "1") corresponds to the left side of the graph. Mean of 4 colonies is shown; the error bars display the std. error.

<ol>
	<li>Kimmel, A. R., Firtel, R. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Breaking+symmetries:+regulation+of+Dictyostelium+development+through+chemoattractant+and+morphogen+signal-response.">Breaking symmetries: regulation of Dictyostelium development through chemoattractant and morphogen signal-response.</a> Curr Opin Genet Dev. 14, 540-540 (2004).</li><li>Palkova, Z., Vachova, L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Life+within+a+community:+benefit+to+yeast+long-term+survival.">Life within a community: benefit to yeast long-term survival.</a> FEMS Microbiol Rev. 30, 806-806 (2006).</li><li>Shapiro, J., Vachova, L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+significances+of+bacterial+colony+patterns.">The significances of bacterial colony patterns.</a> Bioessays. 17, 597-597 (1995).</li><li>Shapiro, J., Vachova, L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Thinking+about+bacterial+populations+as+multicellular+organisms.">Thinking about bacterial populations as multicellular organisms.</a> Annu Rev Microbiol. 52, 81-81 (1998).</li><li>Engelberg, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Multicellular+stalk-like+structures+in+Saccharomyces+cerevisiae.">Multicellular stalk-like structures in Saccharomyces cerevisiae.</a> J Bacteriol. 180, 3992-3992 (1998).</li><li>Scherz, R., Shinder, V., Engelberg, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Anatomical+analysis+of+Saccharomyces+cerevisiae+stalk-like+structures+reveals+spatial+organization+and+cell+specialization.">Anatomical analysis of Saccharomyces cerevisiae stalk-like structures reveals spatial organization and cell specialization.</a> J Bacteriol. 183, 5402-5402 (2001).</li><li>Piccirillo, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+Rim101p/PacC+pathway+and+alkaline+pH+regulate+pattern+formation+in+yeast+colonies.">The Rim101p/PacC pathway and alkaline pH regulate pattern formation in yeast colonies.</a> Genetics. 184, 707-707 (2010).</li><li>Sniegowski, P. D., Dombrowski, P. G., Fingerman, E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Saccharomyces+cerevisiae+and+Saccharomyces+paradoxus+coexist+in+a+natural+woodland+site+in+North+America+and+display+different+levels+of+reproductive+isolation+from+European+conspecifics.">Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Saccharomyces paradoxus coexist in a natural woodland site in North America and display different levels of reproductive isolation from European conspecifics.</a> FEMS Yeast Res. 1, 299-299 (2002).</li><li>Piccirillo, S., Honigberg, S. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Sporulation+patterning+and+invasive+growth+in+wild+and+domesticated+yeast+colonies.">Sporulation patterning and invasive growth in wild and domesticated yeast colonies.</a> Res Microbiol. 161, 390-390 (2002).</li><li>Vachova, L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Architecture+of+developing+multicellular+yeast+colony:+spatio-temporal+expression+of+Ato1p+ammonium+exporter.">Architecture of developing multicellular yeast colony: spatio-temporal expression of Ato1p ammonium exporter.</a> Environ Microbiol. , (2009).</li></ol>

No conflicts of interest declared.

The method presented reveals the interior structures of colonies. Because the method is effective in determining patterns of cell types in a range of S. cerevisiae strains with different colony morphologies, and also in a related species S. paradoxus 5, the method is also likely to work on a wide range of fungi and other microorganisms.
One critical step for the success of the method is to ensure that the entire colony, including the top of the colony, is encased in agar ...

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		<th>Comment</th>
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<td>Osmium tetroxide</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Electron Microscopy Sciences</td>
<td>RT 19152</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>Silicone embedding molds</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
<td>NC 9975029</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
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<td>Cycloaliphatic epoxide resin</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Electron Microscopy Sciences</td>
<td>RT 15004</td>
<td>ERL 4221</td>
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<tr>
<td>Epoxy resin</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Electron Microscopy Sciences</td>
<td>RT 13000</td>
<td>DER 736</td>
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<td>Nonenyl Succinic Anhydride</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
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yeast colony embedding method

Patterning of different cell types in embryos is a key mechanism in metazoan development. Communities of microorganisms, such as colonies and biofilms also display patterns of cell types. For example, in the yeast S. cerevisiae, sporulated cells and pseudohyphal cells are not uniformly distributed in colonies. The functional importance of patterning and the molecular mechanisms that underlie these patterns are still poorly understood.
One challenge with respect to investigating patterns of cell types in fungal colonies is that unlike metazoan tissue, cells in colonies are relatively weakly attached to one another. In particular, fungal colonies do not contain the same extensive level of extracellular matrix found in most tissues . Here we report on a method for embedding and sectioning yeast colonies that reveals the interior patterns of cell types in these colonies. The method can be used to prepare thick sections (0.5 &mu;) useful for light microscopy and thin sections (0.1 &mu;) suitable for transmission electron microscopy. Asci and pseudohyphal cells can easily be distinguished from ovoid yeast cells by light microscopy , while the interior structure of these cells can be visualized by EM.
The method is based on surrounding colonies with agar, infiltrating them with Spurr's medium, and then sectioning. Colonies with a diameter in the range of 1-2 mm are suitable for this protocol. In addition to visualizing the interior of colonies, the method allows visualization of the region of the colony that invades the underlying agar.

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Yeast Colony Embedding Method at JoVE.com

Yeast Colony Embedding Method

A method for embedding yeast colonies allowing sectioning for light and electron microscopy. This protocol allows determination of the distribution of sporulated cells and pseudohyphal cells within colonies providing a new tool toward understanding the organization of cell types within a fungal community.

Patterning of  different cell types in embryos is a key mechanism in metazoan development. Communities of microorganisms, such as colonies and biofilms ...

Research

JoVE Journal

Biology

11.4K Views.  University of Missouri - Kansas City. Метод для встраивания дрожжей колонии позволяет срезов для световой и электронной микроскопии. Этот протокол позволяет определить распределение спорулированных клеток и pseudohyphal клеток в колонии предоставления новым инструментом на пути к пониманию организ...

Video: Yeast Colony Embedding Method

A Rapid Technique for the Visualization of Live Immobilized Yeast Cells

We present here a simple, rapid, and extremely flexible technique for the immobilization and visualization of growing yeast cells by epifluorescence microscopy. The technique is equally suited for visualization of static yeast populations, or time courses experiments up to ten hours in length. My microscopy investigates epigenetic inheritance at the silent mating loci in S. cerevisiae. There are two silent mating loci, HML and HMR, which are normally not expressed as they are packaged in heterochromatin. In the sir1 mutant background silencing is weakened such that each locus can either be in the expressed or silenced epigenetic state, so in the population as a whole there is a mix of cells of different epigenetic states for both HML and HMR. My microscopy demonstrated that there is no relationship between the epigenetic state of HML and HMR in an individual cell. sir1 cells stochastically switch epigenetic states, establishing silencing at a previously expressed locus or expressing a previously silenced locus. My time course microscopy tracked individual sir1 cells and their offspring to score the frequency of each of the four possible epigenetic switches, and thus the stability of each of the epigenetic states in sir1 cells. See also  Xu et al., Mol. Cell 2006.

A rapid technique for the visualization of growing immobilized yeast cells, here applied to fluorescent reporters at the silent mating loci HML and HMR

We present here a simple, rapid, and extremely flexible technique for the immobilization and visualization of growing yeast cells by epifluorescence ...

Rapid Acquisition of 3D Images Using High-resolution Episcopic Microscopy

High-resolution episcopic microscopic (HREM) technology enables rapid acquisition of high-resolution digital volumetric and three-dimensional (3D) morphometric data. Here, we describe the detailed protocol to image the entire mouse embryo. The protocol consists of four major sections: sample preparation, embedding, image acquisition and finally, 3D visualization. The technology requires specimens to be stained with a fluorescent dye, which can be problematic for large or dense specimens. To overcome this limitation, we have improved the existing protocol to enhance tissue penetration of the dye by pretreating the specimen with a solution containing urea and sodium dodecyl sulfate. The protocol uses only routine laboratory equipment and reagents for easy adaptation in standard laboratory settings. We show that the resulting high-resolution 3D images faithfully recapitulate the detailed morphologic features of the internal organs of mouse embryos, thereby permitting morphometric analyses. Together, we present a detailed and improved protocol using standard laboratory equipment to acquire high-resolution 3D images of small and large sized specimens.

We describe a detailed protocol using high-resolution episcopic microscopy to acquire three-dimensional (3D) images of mouse embryos. This improved protocol utilizes a modified tissue preparation method to enhance penetration of the fluorescent dye, thereby permitting morphometric analysis of both small and large-sized specimens.

High-resolution episcopic microscopic (HREM) technology enables rapid acquisition of high-resolution digital volumetric and three-dimensional (3D) ...

Developmental Biology

Visualizing Yeast Organelles with Fluorescent Protein Markers

The budding yeast, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, is a classic model system in studying organelle function and dynamics. In our previous works, we have constructed fluorescent protein-based markers for major organelles and endomembrane structures, including the nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum (ER), Golgi apparatus, endosomes, vacuoles, mitochondria, peroxisomes, lipid droplets, and autophagosomes. The protocol presented here describes the procedures for using these markers in yeast, including DNA preparation for yeast transformation, selection and evaluation of transformants, fluorescent microscopic observation, and the expected outcomes. The text is geared toward researchers who are entering the field of yeast organelle study from other backgrounds. Essential steps are covered, as well as technical notes about microscope hardware considerations and several common pitfalls. It provides a starting point for people to observe yeast subcellular entities by live-cell fluorescent microscopy. These tools and methods can be used to identify protein subcellular localization and track organelles of interest in time-lapse imaging.

Here we describe the use of a set of fluorescent protein-based organelle markers in live-cell imaging of the budding yeast, Saccharomyces cerevisiae.

The budding yeast, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, is a classic model system in studying organelle function and dynamics. In our previous works, we have ...

Biochemistry

Paraffin Embedding and Thin Sectioning of Microbial Colony Biofilms for Microscopic Analysis

Sectioning via paraffin embedding is a broadly established technique in eukaryotic systems. Here we provide a method for the fixation, embedding, and sectioning of intact microbial colony biofilms using perfused paraffin wax. To adapt this method for use on colony biofilms, we developed techniques for maintaining each sample on its growth substrate and laminating it with an agar overlayer, and added lysine to the fixative solution. These optimizations improve sample retention and preservation of micromorphological features. Samples prepared in this manner are amenable to thin sectioning and imaging by light, fluorescence, and transmission electron microscopy. We have applied this technique to colony biofilms of Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Pseudomonas synxantha, Bacillus subtilis, and Vibrio cholerae. The high level of detail visible in samples generated by this method, combined with reporter strain engineering or the use of specific dyes, can provide exciting insights into the physiology and development of microbial communities.

We describe fixation, paraffin embedding, and thin sectioning techniques for microbial colony biofilms. In prepared samples, biofilm substructure and reporter expression patterns can be visualized by microscopy.

Sectioning via paraffin embedding is a broadly established technique in eukaryotic systems. Here we provide a method for the fixation, embedding, and ...

Immunology and Infection

High Throughput Yeast Strain Phenotyping with Droplet-Based RNA Sequencing

The powerful tools available to edit yeast genomes have made this microbe a valuable platform for engineering. While it is now possible to construct libraries of millions of genetically distinct strains, screening for a desired phenotype remains a significant obstacle. With existing screening techniques, there is a tradeoff between information output and throughput, with high-throughput screening typically being performed on one product of interest. Therefore, we present an approach to accelerate strain screening by adapting single cell RNA sequencing to isogenic picoliter colonies of genetically engineered yeast strains. To address the unique challenges of performing RNA sequencing on yeast cells, we culture isogenic yeast colonies within hydrogels and spheroplast prior to performing RNA sequencing. The RNA sequencing data can be used to infer yeast phenotypes and sort out engineered pathways. The scalability of our method addresses a critical obstruction in microbial engineering.

A bottleneck in the &#8216;design-build-test&#8217; cycle of microbial engineering is the speed at which we can perform functional screens of strains. We describe a high-throughput method for strain screening applied to hundreds to thousands of yeast cells per experiment that utilizes droplet-based RNA sequencing.

The powerful tools available to edit yeast genomes have made this microbe a valuable platform for engineering. While it is now possible to construct ...

Bioengineering

Visualization of Candida albicans in the Murine Gastrointestinal Tract Using Fluorescent In Situ Hybridization

Candida albicans is a fungal component of the gut microbiota in humans and many other mammals. Although C. albicans does not cause symptoms in most colonized hosts, the commensal reservoir does serve as a repository for infectious disease, and the presence of high fungal titers in the gut is associated with inflammatory bowel disease. Here, we describe a method to visualize C. albicans cell morphology and localization in a mouse model of stable gastrointestinal colonization. Colonization is established using a single dose of C. albicans in animals that have been treated with oral antibiotics. Segments of gut tissue are fixed in a manner that preserves the architecture of luminal contents (microorganisms and mucus) as well as the host mucosa. Finally, fluorescent in situ hybridization is performed using probes against fungal rRNA to stain for C. albicans and hyphae. A key advantage of this protocol is that it allows for simultaneous observation of C. albicans cell morphology and its spatial association with host structures during gastrointestinal colonization.

Visualization of Candida albicans in the Murine Gastrointestinal Tract Using Fluorescent In Situ Hybridization

The purpose of this protocol is to visualize Candida albicans cell shape and localization in the mammalian gastrointestinal tract.

Candida albicans is a fungal component of the gut microbiota in humans and many other mammals. Although C. albicans does not cause symptoms in most ...

Cryosectioning Yeast Communities for Examining Fluorescence Patterns

Microbes typically live in communities. The spatial organization of cells within a community is believed to impact the survival and function of the community1. Optical sectioning techniques, including confocal and two-photon microscopy, have proven useful for observing spatial organization of bacterial and archaeal communities2,3. A combination of confocal imaging and physical sectioning of yeast colonies has revealed internal organization of cells4. However, direct optical sectioning using confocal or two-photon microscopy has been only able to reach a few cell layers deep into yeast colonies. This limitation is likely because of strong scattering of light from yeast cells4.
Here, we present a method based on fixing and cryosectioning to obtain spatial distribution of fluorescent cells within Saccharomyces cerevisiae communities. We use methanol as the fixative agent to preserve the spatial distribution of cells. Fixed communities are infiltrated with OCT compound, frozen, and cryosectioned in a cryostat. Fluorescence imaging of the sections reveals the internal organization of fluorescent cells within the community.
Examples of yeast communities consisting of strains expressing red and green fluorescent proteins demonstrate the potentials of the cryosectioning method to reveal the spatial distribution of fluorescent cells as well as that of gene expression within yeast colonies2,3. Even though our focus has been on Saccharomyces cerevisiae communities, the same method can potentially be applied to examine other microbial communities.

We present a protocol for freezing and cryosectioning yeast communities to observe internal patterns of fluorescent cells. The method relies on methanol-fixing and OCT-embedding to preserve the spatial distribution of cells without inactivating fluorescent proteins within a community.

Microbes typically live  in communities. The spatial organization  of cells within a community is believed to impact the survival and function of the  ...

Surface Spreading and Immunostaining of Yeast Chromosomes

The small size of nuclei of the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae limits the utility of light microscopy for analysis of the subnuclear distribution of chromatin-bound proteins. Surface spreading of yeast nuclei results in expansion of chromatin without loss of bound proteins. A method for surface spreading balances fixation of DNA bound proteins with detergent treatment. The method demonstrated is slightly modified from that described by Josef Loidl and Franz Klein1,2. The method has been used to characterize the localization of many chromatin-bound proteins at various stages of the mitotic cell cycle, but is especially useful for the study of meiotic chromosome structures such as meiotic recombinosomes and the synaptonemal complex. We also describe a modification that does not require use of Lipsol, a proprietary detergent, which was called for in the original procedure, but no longer commercially available. An immunostaining protocol that is compatible with the chromosome spreading method is also described.

A method for surface-spreading chromosomes from budding yeast is presented. This method is derived from a method previously described by Loidl and Klein. In addition, we demonstrate a procedure for immunostaining of spread chromosomes.

The small size of nuclei of the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae limits the utility of light microscopy for analysis of the subnuclear distribution ...

High-resolution Imaging and Analysis of Individual Astral Microtubule Dynamics in Budding Yeast

Dynamic microtubules are fundamental to many cellular processes, and accurate measurements of microtubule dynamics can provide insight into how cells regulate these processes and how genetic mutations impact regulation. The quantification of microtubule dynamics in metazoan models has a number of associated challenges, including a high microtubule density and limitations on genetic manipulations. In contrast, the budding yeast model offers advantages that overcome these challenges. This protocol describes a method to measure the dynamics of single microtubules in living yeast cells. Cells expressing fluorescently tagged tubulin are adhered to assembled slide chambers, allowing for stable time-lapse image acquisition. A detailed guide for high-speed, four-dimensional image acquisition is also provided, as well as a protocol for quantifying the properties of dynamic microtubules in confocal image stacks. This method, combined with conventional yeast genetics, provides an approach that is uniquely suited for quantitatively assessing the effects of microtubule regulators or mutations that alter the activity of tubulin subunits.

Budding yeast is an advantageous model for studying microtubule dynamics in vivo due to its powerful genetics and the simplicity of its microtubule cytoskeleton. The following protocol describes how to transform and culture yeast cells, acquire confocal microscopy images, and quantitatively analyze microtubule dynamics in living yeast cells.

Dynamic microtubules are fundamental to many cellular processes, and accurate measurements of microtubule dynamics can provide insight into how cells ...

Isolation of Culturable Yeasts and Molds from Soils to Investigate Fungal Population Structure

Soil is host to an incredible amount of microbial life, with each gram containing up to billions of bacterial, archaeal, and fungal cells. Multicellular fungi such as molds and unicellular fungi, broadly defined as yeasts, fulfill essential roles in soil ecosystems as decomposers of organic material and as food sources for other soil dwellers. Fungal species diversity in soil is dependent on a multitude of climatic factors such as rainfall and temperature, as well as soil properties including organic matter, pH, and moisture. Lack of adequate environmental sampling, especially in regions of Asia, Africa, South America, and Central America, hinders the characterization of soil fungal communities and the discovery of novel species. 
We characterized soil fungal communities in nine countries across six continents using ~4,000 soil samples and a protocol developed in the laboratory for the isolation of yeasts and molds. This protocol begins with separate selective enrichment for yeasts and the medically relevant mold Aspergillus fumigatus, in liquid media while inhibiting bacterial growth. Resulting colonies are then transferred to solid media and further processed to obtain pure cultures, followed by downstream genetic characterization. Yeast species identity is established via sequencing of their internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region of the nuclear ribosomal RNA gene cluster, while global population structure of A. fumigatus is explored via microsatellite marker analysis. 
The protocol was successfully applied to isolate and characterize soil yeast and A. fumigatus populations in Cameroon, Canada, China, Costa Rica, Iceland, Peru, New Zealand, and Saudi Arabia. These findings revealed much-needed insights on global patterns in soil yeast diversity, as well as global population structure and antifungal resistance profiles of A. fumigatus. This paper presents the method of isolating both yeasts and A. fumigatus from international soil samples.

This protocol is an effective, speedy method of culturing yeasts and the mold Aspergillus fumigatus from large sets of soil samples in as little as 7 days. The methods can be easily modified to accommodate a range of incubation media and temperatures as needed for experiments.

Soil is host to an incredible amount of microbial life, with each gram containing up to billions of bacterial, archaeal, and fungal cells. Multicellular ...