This research project has received funding from the European Research Council under the European Community's Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007-2013) / ERC grant agreement n &deg; 242710 and was additionally supported by the Human Frontier Science Program and the Emmy Noether Program of the German Research Foundation (SCHR 995/2-1).

<ol>
	<li>Schr&#246;der, L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Xenon+for+NMR+biosensing+-+Inert+but+alert.">Xenon for NMR biosensing - Inert but alert.</a> Phys Med. , (2011).</li><li>Viale, A., Reineri, F., Santelia, D., Cerutti, E., Ellena, S., Gobetto, R., Aime, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Hyperpolarized+agents+for+advanced+MRI+investigations.">Hyperpolarized agents for advanced MRI investigations.</a> Q J Nucl. Med. Mol. Imaging. 53, 604-617 (2009).</li><li>Walker, T. G., Happer, W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Spin-exchange+optical+pumping+of+noble-gas+nuclei.">Spin-exchange optical pumping of noble-gas nuclei.</a> Rev. Mod. 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M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Nuclear+magnetic+resonance+of+laser-polarized+noble+gases+in+molecules,+materials,+and+organisms.">Nuclear magnetic resonance of laser-polarized noble gases in molecules, materials, and organisms.</a> J. Magn. Reson. 155, 157-216 (2002).</li><li>Nikolaou, P., Whiting, N., Eschmann, N. A., Chaffee, K. E., Goodson, B. M., Barlow, M. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Generation+of+laser-polarized+xenon+using+fiber-coupled+laser-diode+arrays+narrowed+with+integrated+volume+holographic+gratings.">Generation of laser-polarized xenon using fiber-coupled laser-diode arrays narrowed with integrated volume holographic gratings.</a> J. Magn. Reson. 197, 249-254 (2009).</li><li>Ruppert, K., Brookeman, J. R., Hagspiel, K. D., Mugler, J. P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Probing+lung+physiology+with+xenon+polarization+transfer+contrast+(XTC).">Probing lung physiology with xenon polarization transfer contrast (XTC).</a> Magn. Reson. Med. 44, 349-357 (2000).</li><li>Driehuys, B., Cofer, G. P., Pollaro, J., Mackel, J. B., Hedlund, L. W., Johnson, G. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Imaging+alveolar-capillary+gas+transfer+using+hyperpolarized+129Xe+MRI.">Imaging alveolar-capillary gas transfer using hyperpolarized 129Xe MRI.</a> Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 103, 18278-18283 (2006).</li><li>Spence, M. M., Rubin, S. M., Dimitrov, I. E., Ruiz, E. J., Wemmer, D. E., Pines, A., Yao, S. Q., Tian, F., Schultz, P. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Functionalized+xenon+as+a+biosensor.">Functionalized xenon as a biosensor.</a> Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 98, 10654-10657 (2001).</li><li>Schr&#246;der, L., Lowery, T. J., Hilty, C., Wemmer, D. E., Pines, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Molecular+imaging+using+a+targeted+magnetic+resonance+hyperpolarized+biosensor.">Molecular imaging using a targeted magnetic resonance hyperpolarized biosensor.</a> Science. 314, 446-449 (2006).</li><li>Schrank, G., Ma, Z., Schoeck, A., Saam, B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Characterization+of+a+low-pressure+high-capacity+129Xe+flow-through+polarizer.">Characterization of a low-pressure high-capacity 129Xe flow-through polarizer.</a> Phys. Rev. A. 80, 063424 (2009).</li><li>Levron, D., Walter, D. K., Appelt, S., Fitzgerald, R. J., Kahn, D., Korbly, S. E., Sauer, K. E., Happer, W., Earles, T. L., Mawst, L. J., Botez, D., Harvey, M., DiMarco, L., Connolly, J. C., M&#246;ller, H. E., Chen, X. J., Cofer, G. P., Johnson, G. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Magnetic+resonance+imaging+of+hyperpolarized+129Xe+produced+by+spin+exchange+with+diode-laser+pumped+Cs.">Magnetic resonance imaging of hyperpolarized 129Xe produced by spin exchange with diode-laser pumped Cs.</a> Appl. Phys. Lett. 73, 2666 (1998).</li><li>Zhou, X., Sun, X. P., Luo, J., Zeng, X. Z., Liu, M. L., Zhan, M. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Production+of+Hyperpolarized+129Xe+Gas+Without+Nitrogen+by+Optical+Pumping+at+133Cs+D2+Line+in+Flow+System.">Production of Hyperpolarized 129Xe Gas Without Nitrogen by Optical Pumping at 133Cs D2 Line in Flow System.</a> Chin. Phys. Lett. 21, 1501-1503 (2004).</li><li>Zhou, X. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Hyperpolarized+noble+gases+as+contrast+agents.">Hyperpolarized noble gases as contrast agents.</a> Methods Mol. Biol. 771, 189-204 (2011).</li><li>Seltzer, S. J., Michalak, D. J., Donaldson, M. H., Balabas, M. V., Barber, S. K., Bernasek, S. L., Bouchiat, M. A., Hexemer, A., Hibberd, A. M., Kimball, D. F., Jaye, C., Karaulanov, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Investigation+of+antirelaxation+coatings+for+alkali-metal+vapor+cells+using+surface+science+techniques.">Investigation of antirelaxation coatings for alkali-metal vapor cells using surface science techniques.</a> J. Chem. Phys. 133, 144703 (2010).</li></ol>

No conflicts of interest declared.

Critical aspects in the preparation of hyperpolarized xenon are oxygen impurities in the gas manifold including the pumping cell and sufficient illumination of the cell with circularly polarized light. The above mentioned light bulb test is a simple way to detect deleterious oxygen concentrations while transferring rubidium. The alkali metal might loose its shiny surface by the time the cell is installed in the polarizer. However, sufficient vaporization of non-oxidized Rb can be monitored by reduced laser transmission (...

Hyperpolarized agents are gaining increasing attention for NMR/MRI applications since they can solve the sensitivity problem under certain circumstances 2. Three major approaches are currently used (dynamic nuclear polarization, DNP; para-hydrogen induced polarization, PHIP; and spin exchange optical pumping, SEOP) that all prepare an artificially increased spin population difference outside an NMR magnet prior to the actual spectroscopy or imaging experiment. Here we describe the function and operation of a SEOP setup that has been optimized for production of hyperpolarized129Xe used in solution state experiments.
An essential component is an intense light source emitting infrared photons at 795 nm. Laser diode arrays (LDA) are convenient devices that provide high power output &gt; 100 W at reasonable cost. In many setups, the LDA is emitting into an optical fiber that more or less retains the polarization of the laser light. To guarantee a sufficient SEOP process this elliptical polarization must be converted into circular polarization of high purity. Major components of the polarization optics are shown in Figures 1 and 2 and setting up the system is explained schematically in supplementary movie 1.
To circularly polarize the light we first attach the fiber end to a primary beam expansion optics (e.g., a fiber collimator) for reducing power density. The light then passes through a polarizing beam splitter cube, generating linearly polarized light. By rotating this cube we can determine the preferred axis of the remaining polarization with a power meter. Maximum transmission corresponds to the situation where the fast axis of the cube is aligned with the principal light polarization axis. Cubes with high extinction coefficients (100,000 : 1 or better) yield a good separation of polarization components. This can be tested using a second beam splitter cube as an analyzer that is rotated while the first one is aligned for maximum transmission of the extra-ordinary beam.
Once the linear polarization of the transmitted light has been confirmed, a &lambda;/4 wave plate designed for 795 nm is introduced into the extra-ordinary beam to convert linear into circular polarization. For this purpose, the fast axis of the wave plate is rotated by 45 &deg; relative to the beam splitter cube fast axis. (If desired, circular polarization of the reflected ordinary beam with its linear polarization axis perpendicular to the extra-ordinary beam can be achieved in a similar manner.)
The quality of the circular polarization can be tested with a second beam splitter cube that should yield constant transmission upon rotation. A secondary beam expansion optics (e.g. two lenses in a Galilean telescope configuration) then increases the beam diameter to completely illuminate the glass cell for the pumping process inside an oven box. Absorption of the laser light by Rb vapor in the cell is monitored through a pin hole behind the pumping cell at the end of the box: a collimator collects an attenuated IR beam to be analyzed with an optical spectrometer (see Figure 3 for pumping cell setup).
A heating mechanism outside the pumping cell partially vaporizes a Rb droplet sitting inside the cell (Figure 4a) and therefore causes laser light absorption. Density of the vapor can be adjusted via the heating set point of the respective PID controller. High temperatures (ca. 190 &deg;C) are good for compact setups where the xenon has a limited amount of time to build up polarization. The gas mixture containing Xe, N2 and He flows through the pumping cell opposite to the laser beam direction (Figure 3). An external magnetic field aligned with the laser beam ensures that the IR photons are only pumping one Rb transition. Relaxation of the electron states is fast and must be non-radiative to avoid emission of IR photons with 'wrong' polarization. Here, the N2 comes into play as a quench gas. Eventually, the Rb system builds up an overpopulation of one of the ground state sublevels while the other one is continuously depleted by the laser (Figure 5). Xenon getting in close contact to the Rb atoms experiences spin-spin interactions and the electron spin polarization is transferred onto Xe nuclei in flip-flop processes.
The hyperpolarized gas flowing out of the pumping cell contains trace amounts of Rb vapor that condensate on the tubing wall within a few cm of the outlet due to the low temperature (similar to Figure 4b). In vivo applications, however, would require additional elimination of the alkali metal (e.g. through a cold trap) whereas in vitro experiments can be performed safely with the gas as it leaves the hyperpolarizer. Teflon tubing connects the polarizer outlet with the inlet of a glass apparatus to perform NMR experiments on test solutions. Mass flow controllers are used to adjust the amount of Xe flowing into the NMR setup. They are triggered by commands in the NMR pulse sequence. After checking the achieved polarization enhancement, the gas can be used as an NMR/MRI contrast agent in solution state experiments.
Xe has a certain solubility in water (4.5 mM/atm) and other solvents. It therefore can already serve on its own as a contrast agent to display the distribution of some liquids. However, it is also possible to link the NMR-active nuclei to certain molecules in order to acquire molecular-specific information through the otherwise inert gas. By providing a molecular host for the dissolved Xe, it is possible to confer molecular specificity to the Xe NMR signal. This provides the opportunity to design functionalized contrast agents - also called biosensors - when such a host structure is coupled to a targeting unit that binds to specific analytes of biomedical interest (Figure 6).
Further sensitivity enhancement is required when the biosensor should be detected at concentrations that are low for MR contrast agents (&lt; 100 &mu;M). This can be achieved by chemical exchange saturation transfer (CEST). This method detects the biosensor indirectly by destroying the magnetization of the caged Xe and observing the signal change of free Xe in solution. Since the hyperpolarized nuclei are continuously replaced after some 10 ms, many 100 to 1000 nuclei transfer the information onto the detected pool and amplify the signal ca. 103-fold (see movie 2).

<table border="1">
<tbody>
 <tr>
 <td>Name of the reagent</td>
 <td>Company</td>
 <td>Catalogue number</td>
 <td>Comments (optional)</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Rb ingot</td>
 <td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
 <td>276332-1G</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>P4O10</td>
 <td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
 <td>79610-500G</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Ar</td>
 <td>Praxair</td>
 <td></td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Xe</td>
 <td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
 <td>00472-1EA</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>O2</td>
 <td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
 <td>00476-1EA</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Laser system</td>
 <td>QPC Lasers/Laser Operations</td>
 <td>Brightlock 50</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Vacuum system</td>
 <td>Pfeiffer</td>
 <td>HiCube</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Thermocouples</td>
 <td>Newport Omega</td>
 <td>SA2F-KI-3M</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Silicon heater</td>
 <td>Newport Omega</td>
 <td>FMA5514</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Pressure transducer</td>
 <td>Newport Omega</td>
 <td>PR 33X-V-10</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Process meter</td>
 <td>Newport Omega</td>
 <td>INFCP-100B</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Mass flow controllers</td>
 <td>Newport Omega</td>
 <td>MFC</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>PID regulators</td>
 <td>Newport Omega</td>
 <td>CN7800</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Control Software</td>
 <td>Newport Omega</td>
 <td>DasyLab</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Data acquisition</td>
 <td>Newport Omega</td>
 <td>Daqboard 3000</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Vacuum sensor</td>
 <td>Oerlikon</td>
 <td>TTR91</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Vacuum controller</td>
 <td>Vacom</td>
 <td>MVC-3</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Beam collimator</td>
 <td>Thorlabs</td>
 <td>F810SMA-780</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Polarizing beam splitter cube</td>
 <td>Thorlabs</td>
 <td>GL15-B</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>&lambda;/4 wave plate</td>
 <td>Thorlabs</td>
 <td>WPQ10M-780</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Beam expansion lenses</td>
 <td>Thorlabs</td>
 <td></td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Optical spectrometer</td>
 <td>Ocean Optics</td>
 <td>HR4000</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Optical fiber</td>
 <td>Ocean Optics</td>
 <td></td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Low pressure NMR tube</td>
 <td>Wilmad</td>
 <td>513-7LPV-7</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>5mm NMR tube</td>
 <td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
 <td>HX58.1</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Helmholtz coils</td>
 <td>Phywe</td>
 <td>06960-00</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Fused silica capillaries</td>
 <td>Polymicro</td>
 <td>TSG 250350</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 </tbody>
</table>

hyperpolarized xenon for nmr and mri applications

Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy and imaging (MRI) suffer from intrinsic low sensitivity because even strong external magnetic fields of ~10 T generate only a small detectable net-magnetization of the sample at room temperature 1. Hence, most NMR and MRI applications rely on the detection of molecules at relative high concentration (e.g., water for imaging of biological tissue) or require excessive acquisition times. This limits our ability to exploit the very useful molecular specificity of NMR signals for many biochemical and medical applications. However, novel approaches have emerged in the past few years: Manipulation of the detected spin species prior to detection inside the NMR/MRI magnet can dramatically increase the magnetization and therefore allows detection of molecules at much lower concentration 2.
Here, we present a method for polarization of a xenon gas mixture (2-5% Xe, 10% N2, He balance) in a compact setup with a ca. 16000-fold signal enhancement. Modern line-narrowed diode lasers allow efficient polarization 7 and immediate use of gas mixture even if the noble gas is not separated from the other components. The SEOP apparatus is explained and determination of the achieved spin polarization is demonstrated for performance control of the method.
The hyperpolarized gas can be used for void space imaging, including gas flow imaging or diffusion studies at the interfaces with other materials 8,9. Moreover, the Xe NMR signal is extremely sensitive to its molecular environment 6. This enables the option to use it as an NMR/MRI contrast agent when dissolved in aqueous solution with functionalized molecular hosts that temporarily trap the gas 10,11. Direct detection and high-sensitivity indirect detection of such constructs is demonstrated in both spectroscopic and imaging mode.

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Hyperpolarized Xenon for NMR and MRI Applications at JoVE.com

Hyperpolarized Xenon for NMR and MRI Applications

The production of hyperpolarized xenon by means of spin exchange optical pumping (SEOP) is described. This method yields a ~10000-fold enhancement of the nuclear spin polarization of Xe-129 and has applications in nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy and imaging. Examples of gas phase and solution state experiments are given.

Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy and imaging (MRI) suffer from intrinsic low sensitivity because even strong external magnetic fields of ~10 ...

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Engineering

19.5K Views.  Leibniz-Institut für Molekulare Pharmakologie. Производство гиперполяризованного ксенона при помощи спинового обмена оптической накачки (Сеоп) описывается. Этот метод дает ~ 10000-кратного повышения поляризации ядерных спинов Хе-129 и находит применение в спектроскопии ядерного магнитного резонанса и изобр...

Video: Hyperpolarized Xenon for NMR and MRI Applications

Solid-state Graft Copolymer Electrolytes for Lithium Battery Applications

Battery safety has been a very important research area over the past decade. Commercially available lithium ion batteries employ low flash point (&lt;80 &deg;C), flammable, and volatile organic electrolytes. These organic based electrolyte systems are viable at ambient temperatures, but require a cooling system to ensure that temperatures do not exceed 80 &deg;C. These cooling systems tend to increase battery costs and can malfunction which can lead to battery malfunction and explosions, thus endangering human life. Increases in petroleum prices lead to a huge demand for safe, electric hybrid vehicles that are more economically viable to operate as oil prices continue to rise. Existing organic based electrolytes used in lithium ion batteries are not applicable to high temperature automotive applications. A safer alternative to organic electrolytes is solid polymer electrolytes. This work will highlight the synthesis for a graft copolymer electrolyte (GCE) poly(oxyethylene) methacrylate (POEM) to a block with a lower glass transition temperature (Tg) poly(oxyethylene) acrylate (POEA). The conduction mechanism has been discussed and it has been demonstrated the relationship between polymer segmental motion and ionic conductivity indeed has a Vogel-Tammann-Fulcher (VTF) dependence. Batteries containing commercially available LP30 organic (LiPF6 in ethylene carbonate (EC):dimethyl carbonate (DMC) at a 1:1 ratio) and GCE were cycled at ambient temperature. It was found that at ambient temperature, the batteries containing GCE showed a greater overpotential when compared to LP30 electrolyte. However at temperatures greater than 60 &deg;C, the GCE cell exhibited much lower overpotential due to fast polymer electrolyte conductivity and nearly the full theoretical specific capacity of 170 mAh/g was accessed.

Lithium ion batteries employ flammable and volatile organic electrolytes that are suitable for ambient temperature applications. A safer alternative to organic electrolytes are solid polymer batteries. Solid polymer batteries operate safely at high temperatures (&gt;120 &deg;C), thus making them applicable to high temperature applications such as deep oil drilling and hybrid electric vehicles. This paper will discuss (a) the polymer synthesis, (b) the polymer conduction mechanism, and (c) provide temperature cycling for both solid polymer and organic electrolytes.

Battery safety has been a very important research area over the past decade. Commercially available lithium ion batteries employ low flash point (&lt;80 ...

Use of a Multi-compartment Dynamic Single Enzyme Phantom for Studies of Hyperpolarized Magnetic Resonance Agents

Imaging of hyperpolarized substrates by magnetic resonance shows great clinical promise for assessment of critical biochemical processes in real time. Due to fundamental constraints imposed by the hyperpolarized state, exotic imaging and reconstruction techniques are commonly used. A practical system for characterization of dynamic, multi-spectral imaging methods is critically needed. Such a system must reproducibly recapitulate the relevant chemical dynamics of normal and pathological tissues. The most widely utilized substrate to date is hyperpolarized [1-13C]-pyruvate for assessment of cancer metabolism. We describe an enzyme-based phantom system that mediates the conversion of pyruvate to lactate. The reaction is initiated by injection of the hyperpolarized agent into multiple chambers within the phantom, each of which contains varying concentrations of reagents that control the reaction rate. Multiple compartments are necessary to ensure that imaging sequences faithfully capture the spatial and metabolic heterogeneity of tissue. This system will aid the development and validation of advanced imaging strategies by providing chemical dynamics that are not available from conventional phantoms, as well as control and reproducibility that is not possible in vivo.

A multi-compartment dynamic phantom is used to simulate some biology of interest for metabolic studies using hyperpolarized magnet resonance agents.

Imaging of hyperpolarized substrates by magnetic resonance shows great clinical promise for assessment of critical biochemical processes in real time. Due ...

Three-dimensional Particle Tracking Velocimetry for Turbulence Applications: Case of a Jet Flow

3D-PTV is a quantitative flow measurement technique that aims to track the Lagrangian paths of a set of particles in three dimensions using stereoscopic recording of image sequences. The basic components, features, constraints and optimization tips of a 3D-PTV topology consisting of a high-speed camera with a four-view splitter are described and discussed in this article. The technique is applied to the intermediate flow field (5 &#60;x/d &#60;25) of a circular jet at Re &#8776; 7,000. Lagrangian flow features and turbulence quantities in an Eulerian frame are estimated around ten diameters downstream of the jet origin and at various radial distances from the jet core. Lagrangian properties include trajectory, velocity and acceleration of selected particles as well as curvature of the flow path, which are obtained from the Frenet-Serret equation. Estimation of the 3D velocity and turbulence fields around the jet core axis at a cross-plane located at ten diameters downstream of the jet is compared with literature, and the power spectrum of the large-scale streamwise velocity motions is obtained at various radial distances from the jet core.

A three-dimensional particle tracking velocimetry (3D-PTV) system based on a high-speed camera with a four-view splitter is described here. The technique is applied to a jet flow from a circular pipe in the vicinity of ten diameters downstream at Reynolds number Re &#8776; 7,000.

3D-PTV is a quantitative flow measurement technique that aims to track the Lagrangian paths of a set of particles in three dimensions using stereoscopic ...

Colloidal Synthesis of Nanopatch Antennas for Applications in Plasmonics and Nanophotonics

We present a method for colloidal synthesis of silver nanocubes and the use of these in combination with a smooth gold film, to fabricate plasmonic nanoscale patch antennas. This includes a detailed procedure for the fabrication of thin films with a well-controlled thickness over macroscopic areas using layer-by-layer deposition of polyelectrolyte polymers, namely poly(allylamine) hydrochloride (PAH) and polystyrene sulfonate (PSS). These polyelectrolyte spacer layers serve as a dielectric gap in between silver nanocubes and a gold film. By controlling the size of the nanocubes or the gap thickness, the plasmon resonance can be tuned from about 500 nm to 700 nm. Next, we demonstrate how to incorporate organic sulfo-cyanine5 carboxylic acid (Cy5) dye molecules into the dielectric polymer gap region of the nanopatch antennas. Finally, we show greatly enhanced fluorescence of the Cy5 dyes by spectrally matching the plasmon resonance with the excitation energy and the Cy5 absorption peak. The method presented here enables the fabrication of plasmonic nanopatch antennas with well-controlled dimensions utilizing colloidal synthesis and a layer-by-layer dip-coating process with the potential for low cost and large-scale production. These nanopatch antennas hold great promise for practical applications, for example in sensing, ultrafast optoelectronic devices and for high-efficiency photodetectors.

A protocol for the colloidal synthesis of silver nanocubes and fabrication of plasmonic nanoscale patch antennas with sub-10 nm gaps is presented.

We present a method for colloidal synthesis of silver nanocubes and the use of these in combination with a smooth gold film, to fabricate plasmonic ...

Fabrication of Polymer Microspheres for Optical Resonator and Laser Applications

This paper describes three methods of preparing fluorescent microspheres comprising &#960;-conjugated or non-conjugated polymers: vapor diffusion, interface precipitation, and mini-emulsion. In all methods, well-defined, micrometer-sized spheres are obtained from a self-assembling process in solution. The vapor diffusion method can result in spheres with the highest sphericity and surface smoothness, yet the types of the polymers able to form these spheres are limited. On the other hand, in the mini-emulsion method, microspheres can be made from various types of polymers, even from highly crystalline polymers with coplanar, &#960;-conjugated backbones. The photoluminescent (PL) properties from single isolated microspheres are unusual: the PL is confined inside the spheres, propagates at the circumference of the spheres via the total internal reflection at the polymer/air interface, and self-interferes to show sharp and periodic resonant PL lines. These resonating modes are so-called "whispering gallery modes" (WGMs). This work demonstrates how to measure WGM PL from single isolated spheres using the micro-photoluminescence (&#181;-PL) technique. In this technique, a focused laser beam irradiates a single microsphere, and the luminescence is detected by a spectrometer. A micromanipulation technique is then used to connect the microspheres one by one and to demonstrate the intersphere PL propagation and color conversion from coupled microspheres upon excitation at the perimeter of one sphere and detection of PL from the other microsphere. These techniques, &#181;-PL and micromanipulation, are useful for experiments on micro-optic application using polymer materials.

Protocols for the synthesis of microspheres from polymers, the manipulation of microspheres, and micro-photoluminescence measurements are presented.

This paper describes three methods of preparing fluorescent microspheres comprising &#960;-conjugated or non-conjugated polymers: vapor diffusion, ...

Protocol for the Evaluation of MRI Artifacts Caused by Metal Implants to Assess the Suitability of Implants and the Vulnerability of Pulse Sequences

As the number of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scanners and patients with medical implants is constantly growing, radiologists increasingly encounter metallic implant-related artifacts in MRI, resulting in reduced image quality. Therefore, the MRI suitability of implants in terms of artifact volume, as well as the development of pulse sequences to reduce image artifacts, are becoming more and more important. Here, we present a comprehensive protocol which allows for a standardized evaluation of the artifact volume of implants on MRI. Furthermore, this protocol can be used to analyze the vulnerability of different pulse sequences to artifacts. The proposed protocol can be applied to T1- and T2-weighted images with or without fat-suppression and all passive implants. Furthermore, the procedure enables the separate and three-dimensional identification of signal loss and pile-up artifacts. As previous investigations differed greatly in evaluation methods, the comparability of their results was limited. Thus, standardized measurements of MRI artifact volumes are necessary to provide better comparability. This may improve the development of the MRI suitability of implants and better pulse sequences to finally improve patient care.

We describe a standardized method to evaluate magnetic resonance imaging artifacts caused by implants to estimate the suitability of the implants for magnetic resonance imaging and/or the vulnerability of different pulse sequences to metallic artifacts simultaneously.

As the number of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scanners and patients with medical implants is constantly growing, radiologists increasingly encounter ...

Fabrication of Superhydrophobic Metal Surfaces for Anti-Icing Applications

Several ways to produce superhydrophobic metal surfaces are presented in this work. Aluminum was chosen as the metal substrate due to its wide use in industry. The wettability of the produced surface was analyzed by bouncing drop experiments and the topography was analyzed by confocal microscopy. In addition, we show various methodologies to measure its durability and anti-icing properties. Superhydrophobic surfaces hold a special texture that must be preserved to keep their water-repellency. To fabricate durable surfaces, we followed two strategies to incorporate a resistant texture. The first strategy is a direct incorporation of roughness to the metal substrate by acid etching. After this surface texturization, the surface energy was decreased by silanization or fluoropolymer deposition. The second strategy is the growth of a ceria layer (after surface texturization) that should enhance the surface hardness and corrosion resistance. The surface energy was decreased with a stearic acid film.
The durability of the superhydrophobic surfaces was examined by a particle impact test, mechanical wear by lateral abrasion, and UV-ozone resistance. The anti-icing properties were explored by studying the ability to repeal subcooled water, freezing delay, and ice adhesion.

We illustrate several methodologies to produce superhydrophobic metal surfaces and to explore their durability and anti-icing properties.

Several ways to produce superhydrophobic metal surfaces are presented in this work. Aluminum was chosen as the metal substrate due to its wide use in ...

Controllable Nucleation of Cavitation from Plasmonic Gold Nanoparticles for Enhancing High Intensity Focused Ultrasound Applications

In this study, plasmonic gold nanoparticles were simultaneously exposed to pulsed near-infrared laser light and high intensity focused ultrasound (HIFU) for the controllable nucleation of cavitation in tissue-mimicking gel phantoms. This in vitro protocol was developed to demonstrate the feasibility of this approach, for both enhancement of imaging and therapeutic applications for cancer. The same apparatus can be used for both imaging and therapeutic applications by varying the exposure duration of the HIFU system. For short duration exposures (10 &#181;s), broadband acoustic emissions were generated through the controlled nucleation of inertial cavitation around the gold nanoparticles. These emissions provide direct localization of nanoparticles. For future applications, these particles may be functionalized with molecular-targeting antibodies (e.g. anti-HER2 for breast cancer) and can provide precise localization of cancerous regions, complementing routine diagnostic ultrasound imaging. For continuous wave (CW) exposures, the cavitation activity was used to increase the localized heating from the HIFU exposures resulting in larger thermal damage in the gel phantoms. The acoustic emissions generated from inertial cavitation activity during these CW exposures was monitored using a passive cavitation detection (PCD) system to provide feedback of cavitation activity. Increased localized heating was only achieved through the unique combination of nanoparticles, laser light and HIFU. Further validation of this technique in pre-clinical models of cancer is necessary.

This protocol demonstrates the controllable nucleation of cavitation in gel phantoms, through simultaneous exposure to both near-infrared pulsed laser light and high intensity focused ultrasound (HIFU). The cavitation activity can then be used for enhancing imaging and/or therapeutic uses of HIFU.

In this study, plasmonic gold nanoparticles were simultaneously exposed to pulsed near-infrared laser light and high intensity focused ultrasound (HIFU) ...

Optimization, Test and Diagnostics of Miniaturized Hall Thrusters

Miniaturized spacecraft and satellites require smart, highly efficient and durable low-thrust thrusters, capable of extended, reliable operation without attendance and adjustment. Thermochemical thrusters which utilize thermodynamic properties of gases as a means of acceleration have physical limitations on their exhaust gas velocity, resulting in low efficiency. Moreover, these engines demonstrate extremely low efficiency at small thrusts and may be unsuitable for continuously operating systems which provide real-time adaptive control of the spacecraft orientation, velocity and position. In contrast, electric propulsion systems which use electromagnetic fields to accelerate ionized gases (i.e., plasmas) do not have any physical limitation in terms of exhaust velocity, allowing virtually any mass efficiency and specific impulse. Low-thrust Hall thrusters have a lifetime of several thousand hours. Their discharge voltage ranges between 100 and 300 V, operating at a nominal power of &lt;1 kW. They vary from 20 to 100 mm in size. Large Hall thrusters can provide fractions of millinewton of thrust. Over the past few decades, there has been an increasing interest in small mass, low power, and high efficiency propulsion systems to drive satellites of 50-200 kg. In this work, we will demonstrate how to build, test, and optimize a small (30 mm) Hall thruster capable of propelling a small satellite weighing about 50 kg. We will show the thruster operating in a large space environment simulator, and describe how thrust is measured and electric parameters, including plasma characteristics, are collected and processed to assess key thruster parameters. We will also demonstrate how the thruster is optimized to make it one of the most efficient small thrusters ever built. We will also address challenges and opportunities presented by new thruster materials.

Here, we present a protocol to test and optimize space propulsion systems based on miniaturized Hall-type thrusters.

Miniaturized spacecraft and satellites require smart, highly efficient and durable low-thrust thrusters, capable of extended, reliable operation without ...

Application of a Coupling Agent to Improve the Dielectric Properties of Polymer-Based Nanocomposites

In this work, an easy, low-cost, and widely applicable method was developed to improve the compatibility between the ceramic fillers and the polymer matrix by adding 3-aminopropyltriethoxysilane (KH550) as a coupling agent during the fabrication process of BaTiO3-P(VDF-CTFE) nanocomposites through solution casting. Results show that the use of KH550 can modify the surface of ceramic nanofillers; therefore, good wettability on the ceramic-polymer interface was achieved, and the enhanced energy storage performances were obtained by a suitable amount of the coupling agent. This method can be used to prepare flexible composites, which is highly desirable for the production of high-performance film capacitors. If an excessive amount of coupling agent is used in the process, the non-attached coupling agent can participate in complex reactions, which leads to a decrease in dielectric constant and an increase in dielectric loss.

Here, we demonstrate a simple and low-cost solution-casting process to improve the compatibility between the filler and the matrix of polymer-based nanocomposites using surface modified BaTiO3 fillers, which can effectively enhance the energy density of the composites.

In this work, an easy, low-cost, and widely applicable method was developed to improve the compatibility between the ceramic fillers and the polymer ...