This video publication was made possible by funding from the National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney diseases (NIDDK) for the Program Project Grant "Pathobiology of the Enteric System" DK 68055. Christopher T. Creedon was supported by the Rochester Public Schools Mentorship Program.
We thank Mr. Gary Stoltz for technical assistance, Ms. Kristy Zodrow for secretarial assistance and Dr. Douglas Baer from Los Gatos Research, Inc (Mountain View, CA).

1. Training and Habituation of the Mice
<ol>
 <li>Prior to analysis, put all mice in the testing chambers for 2-4 hr with constant airflow in order to habituate them to the testing conditions. This markedly reduces stress levels that might otherwise cause aberrant detection of delayed gastric emptying. Treat the mice the same way as if the gastric emptying experiment was running. Prepare egg yolk (see further) without adding octanoic acid and feed 0.2 g to each mouse. </li>
 <li>Repeat this process till the mice are sufficiently trained (typically 2-3 times). The mice typically are easily habituated as long as the environmental conditions are kept the same. </li>
</ol>
Note: Non-habituated mice continue to move around for about 1 hr after transfer to the chamber, and defecate and urinate frequently, while habituated mice quickly settle in their new environment and rest quietly.
Note: During the experiment: Monitor animals for signs of loss of habituation such as excess urination, defecation, lack of interest in eating the egg. If this is the case consider re habituating in an empty chamber 1-2 times prior to obtaining gastric emptying data. Consistency is extremely important while doing this experiment. Doing things exactly the same way every time is the only way to get reliable and reproducible results. This includes giving treatment (e.g. insulin) every day at the same time, not separating the mice from their cage-mates unless absolutely necessary, fasting the mice and starting the gastric emptying test at the same time, and handling the mice the same way.
2. Preparation of the Isotope Containing Test Meal 
<ol>
 <li>Start with weighing out 5 g of egg yolk in a 50 ml falcon tube. Repeat these steps each experimental day to prepare a fresh test meal. </li>
 <li>Add 10 &mu;l of octanoic acid with a concentration of 2 &mu;l/g to the 50 ml falcon tube containing the egg and mix vigorously for 1 min with a spatula in the falcon tube. </li>
 <li>The egg is then transferred to a glass beaker and heated over a Bunsen burner until it coagulates and its consistency is suitable to make small balls. This typically takes about 30 sec. </li>
</ol>
Note: The balls of egg yolk should weigh 0.2 g per mouse. This is important to keep the cumulative dose constant in all the mice. 
3. Starting the Experiment
<ol>
 <li>Once trained and ready for gastric emptying, fast the mice overnight (12 hr) on a metal "mesh-bottom" fasting rack to prevent coprophagia. Make sure they have free access to drinking water. Since diabetic mice are used in the current experiment, they should not be fasted for more than 16 hr.</li>
 <li>Start by setting up the gastric emptying chambers. Use clean chambers and covers that have been air-dried. Also, any tubes connecting the chambers to the analyzer or the CO2 air supply should be moisture free; water can interfere with the signal read by the analyzer </li>
 <li>Connect the chambers to the inlet tubes that provide a constant air flow. Then connect the outlet tubes from the chambers to the machine. Close the tubes and turn on the airflow. </li>
</ol>
Note: Apply a very small amount of Vaseline at the end of the cover lids so they close easily and are securely sealed. This tight seal is necessary to collect all the carbon dioxide produced by the mice.
4. Experimental Procedures
<ol>
 <li>Start out by weighing each mouse. Body weight is a measure of their continuing good health. Then place each mouse in the appropriate chamber. It is of course important to have the air flowing into the chambers at this time. </li>
 <li>To start the measurement, allow the mice to acclimate to the chambers before adjusting the air levels. </li>
 <li>Once the mice appear calm, which may take a few minutes, adjust the air flow rate for each mouse chamber. This may be different for each mouse. Typically, the air flow is adjusted at the beginning of the experiment to make sure that exhaled CO2 reaches levels detectable by whatever equipment is being used, and to make sure that the level stays low enough to ensure healthy air turnover. We use initial CO2 levels between 1,000 and 1,500 parts per million. </li>
 <li>If having difficulty with adjustments, check for air leaks. Then repeat the process for each of the chambers and watch for another round of measurements to see if adjustments made to airflow have corrected the CO2 level. It is important to obtain a steady baseline reading prior to feeding the mice. We use a machine with a self calibration feature. If this is not the case calibration should be checked. </li>
 <li>When this is achieved, administer the egg meal to the first mouse and record the time each mouse receives the food. </li>
 <li>We run the procedure for 4 hr to obtain enough values for fitting the 13CO2 enrichment curve for each mouse. Check on the mice every 30-60 min to make sure that the CO2 levels are still safe for the mice.</li>
 <li>Prepare new boxes containing food before the end of the test so the mice can start eating immediately after the test is over. </li>
</ol>

<ol>
	<li>Yeung, C. K., McCurrie, J. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+simple+method+to+investigate+the+inhibitory+effects+of+drugs+on+gastric+emptying+in+the+mouse+in+vivo.">A simple method to investigate the inhibitory effects of drugs on gastric emptying in the mouse in vivo.</a> J. Pharmacol. Toxicol. Methods. 45, 235-240 (2001).</li><li>Osinski, M. A., Seifert, T. R., Cox, B. F., Gintant, G. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=An+improved+method+of+evaluation+of+drug-evoked+changes+in+gastric+emptying+in+mice.">An improved method of evaluation of drug-evoked changes in gastric emptying in mice.</a> J. Pharmacol. Toxicol. Methods. 47, 115-120 (2002).</li><li>Ghoos, Y. F., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Measurement+of+gastric+emptying+rate+of+solids+by+means+of+a+carbon-labeled+octanoic+acid+breath+test.">Measurement of gastric emptying rate of solids by means of a carbon-labeled octanoic acid breath test.</a> Gastroenterology. 104, 1640-1647 (1993).</li><li>Symonds, E., Butler, R., Omari, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Noninvasive+breath+tests+can+detect+alterations+in+gastric+emptying+in+the+mouse.">Noninvasive breath tests can detect alterations in gastric emptying in the mouse.</a> Eur. J. Clin. Invest. 32, 341-344 (2002).</li><li>Symonds, E. L., Butler, R. N., Omari, T. I. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Assessment+of+gastric+emptying+in+the+mouse+using+the+[13C]-octanoic+acid+breath+test.">Assessment of gastric emptying in the mouse using the [13C]-octanoic acid breath test.</a> Clin. Exp. Pharmacol. Physiol. 27, 671-675 (2000).</li><li>Verhulst, P. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Role+of+ghrelin+in+the+relationship+between+hyperphagia+and+accelerated+gastric+emptying+in+diabetic+mice.">Role of ghrelin in the relationship between hyperphagia and accelerated gastric emptying in diabetic mice.</a> Gastroenterology. 135, 1267-1276 (2008).</li><li>Schoonjans, R., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+13C-octanoic+acid+breath+test:+validation+of+a+new+noninvasive+method+of+measuring+gastric+emptying+in+rats.">The 13C-octanoic acid breath test: validation of a new noninvasive method of measuring gastric emptying in rats.</a> Neurogastroenterol. Motil. 14, 287-293 (2002).</li><li>Choi, K. M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Determination+of+gastric+emptying+in+nonobese+diabetic+mice.">Determination of gastric emptying in nonobese diabetic mice.</a> Am. J. Physiol. Gastrointest. Liver Physiol. 293, 1039-1045 (2007).</li><li>Atkinson, M. A., Leiter, E. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+NOD+mouse+model+of+type+1+diabetes:+as+good+as+it+gets?.">The NOD mouse model of type 1 diabetes: as good as it gets?.</a> Nat. Med. 5, 601-604 (1999).</li><li>Camilleri, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Clinical+practice.+Diabetic+gastroparesis.">Clinical practice. Diabetic gastroparesis.</a> N. Engl. J. Med. 356, 820-829 (2007).</li><li>Choi, K. M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Heme+oxygenase-1+protects+interstitial+cells+of+Cajal+from+oxidative+stress+and+reverses+diabetic+gastroparesis.">Heme oxygenase-1 protects interstitial cells of Cajal from oxidative stress and reverses diabetic gastroparesis.</a> Gastroenterology. 135, 2055-2064 (2008).</li><li>Kashyap, P. C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Carbon+monoxide+reverses+diabetic+gastroparesis+in+NOD+mice.">Carbon monoxide reverses diabetic gastroparesis in NOD mice.</a> Am. J. Physiol. GI. G298, G1013-G1019 (2010).</li></ol>

The authors declare that they have no competing financial interests.

The described technique herein allows for repeated and non-invasive in vivo measurement of solid gastric emptying in mice. This system has the advantage that the animals are not restrained in the measurement chamber, allowing them to move and turn freely. Since this is an unfamiliar environment, the mice still need to be trained and habituated to the testing chambers to prevent effects of stress on gastric emptying. In general, we assume the gastric emptying data are reliable if the intra-mouse variability betwe...

This manuscript describes the technical and methodological considerations involved in non-invasive measurement of gastric emptying in mice. By following the protocol described here, investigators can reliably and reproducibly follow changes in gastric emptying due to development of disease, study the impact of pharmacological agents on gastric emptying and follow the response of gastric emptying to treatment of underlying diseases or defects6,8,11,12. In previous publications, the application of 13C octanoic acid breath tests was shown to be a useful way of measuring gastric emptying in humans and animals3,8.This paper describes in detail, the procedures necessary to obtain reliable data over the 6 to 8 months necessary for a longitudinal study of gastric emptying in mice with diabetes. The advantages of following this protocol when compared to previously published methods are that the investigator can be assured the data obtained will be reliable and reproducible. In addition, the automated system for collecting and analyzing the gas samples described here increases the number of animals that can be followed simultaneously in a study. Overall, the goal of this paper is to identify the key factors that maintain habituation of the mice to the test and that reduce variability in obtained results.
For the in vivo measurement of gastric emptying, mice are fasted overnight and put into the transparent plastic testing chambers with constant airflow. After the mice get habituated to the tubes, baseline exhaled 13CO2 levels are determined and airflow adjusted accordingly. Next, we administer a test meal consisting of egg yolk mixed with 13C-labeled octanoic acid. Because the mice are fasted and trained, they generally eat the test meal within 2 min. The administered octanoic acid is not absorbed in the stomach but will be taken up in the duodenum and will get metabolized in the liver into 13CO2, which is released and exhaled, resulting in an enrichment of 13CO2 in the surrounding air. Air samples are collected at determined time intervals and are analyzed by the carbon isotope analyzer. The rate-limiting step in this whole process is gastric emptying and the pulmonary excretion of 13CO2 directly corresponds with gastric emptying of the labeled meal. 
<img src="/files/ftp_upload/50301/50301fig1.jpg" alt="Figure 1" fo:content-width="6in" fo:src="/files/ftp_upload/50301/50301fig1highres.jpg"/> 
Figure 1. Schematic of gastric emptying apparatus. After overnight fasting, mice are placed in transparent chambers allowing them to move and turn freely. An inlet tube allows fresh and constant air influx and an outlet leads to the isotope analyzer to measure the 13C-to-12C ratio in the exhaled breath. The chamber also has a central port for delivery of food containing [13C]-octanoic acid.

<table border="1">
<tbody>
 <tr>
 <td>NAME</td>
 <td>COMPANY</td>
 <td>CAT NUMBER</td>
 <td>COMMENTS</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>A source of constant air-supply, flow as well as composition</td>
 <td>central air supply in the research facility</td>
 <td></td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>130 ml sampling chamber that has air inlet, air outlet, and food administration opening 
Plastic tubes for air supply</td>
 <td>In-house built</td>
 <td></td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Octanoic acid</td>
 <td>Cambridge isotope laboratories (Andover, MA)</td>
 <td>CLM-293-1</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>To prepare the egg meal: 
 <ul>
 <li>small beaker</li>
 <li>50 ml plastic tube</li>
 <li>Bunsen burner</li>
 <li>egg</li>
 <li>spatula</li>
 </ul></td>
 <td>Any supplier</td>
 <td></td>
 <td>Try to be consistent with the egg supplier since the nutritional content and palatability of the eggs can affect ingestion and gastric emptying of the meal</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Carbon dioxide isotope analyzer</td>
 <td>Los Gatos Research Inc. (Mountain View, CA)</td>
 <td></td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
</tbody>
</table>

assessment of gastric emptying in non-obese diabetic mice using a [13c]-octanoic acid breath test

Gastric emptying studies in mice have been limited by the inability to follow gastric emptying changes in the same animal since the most commonly used techniques require killing of the animals and postmortem recovery of the meal1,2. This approach prevents longitudinal studies to determine changes in gastric emptying with age and progression of disease. The commonly used [13C]-octanoic acid breath test for humans3 has been modified for use in mice4-6 and rats7 and we previously showed that this test is reliable and responsive to changes in gastric emptying in response to drugs and during diabetic disease progression8. In this video presentation the principle and practical implementation of this modified test is explained. As in the previous study, NOD LtJ mice are used, a model of type 1 diabetes9. A proportion of these mice develop the symptoms of gastroparesis, a complication of diabetes characterized by delayed gastric emptying without mechanical obstruction of the stomach10.
This paper demonstrates how to train the mice for testing, how to prepare the test meal and obtain 4 hr gastric emptying data and how to analyze the obtained data. The carbon isotope analyzer used in the present study is suitable for the automatic sampling of the air samples from up to 12 mice at the same time. This technique allows the longitudinal follow-up of gastric emptying from larger groups of mice with diabetes or other long-standing diseases.

A representative data set from three different mice is shown in Figure 2. The black graph represents the data points from a mouse with normal gastric emptying. It shows the fraction of 13C that is recovered in the exhaled air expressed as a percentage of the administered dose per hour expressed as a function of time. The blue curve is from a mouse with an accelerated gastric emptying with a T half value of 40 min and the red curve is from a mouse with a delayed gastric emptying with a T half v...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Assessment of Gastric Emptying in Non-obese Diabetic Mice Using a [13C]-octanoic Acid Breath Test at JoVE.com

Assessment of Gastric Emptying in Non-obese Diabetic Mice Using a [13C]-octanoic Acid Breath Test

Determination of gastric emptying with a non-invasive [13C]-octanoic acid breath test for tracking gastroparesis in female NOD LtJ mice.

Assessment of Gastric Emptying in Non-obese Diabetic Mice Using a [13C]-octanoic Acid Breath Test

Gastric emptying studies in mice have been limited by the inability to follow gastric emptying changes in the same animal since the most commonly used ...

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13.5K Views.  Mayo Clinic. Определение опорожнения желудка с помощью неинвазивных [ 13 C]-октановой кислоты дыхательный тест для отслеживания гастропареза в женской NOD мышей LTJ.

Video: Assessment of Gastric Emptying in Non-obese Diabetic Mice Using a [13C]-octanoic Acid Breath Test

Making Sense of Listening: The IMAP Test Battery

The ability to hear is only the first step towards making sense of the range of information contained in an auditory signal. Of equal importance are the abilities to extract and use the information encoded in the auditory signal. We refer to these as listening skills (or auditory processing AP). Deficits in these skills are associated with delayed language and literacy development, though the nature of the relevant deficits and their causal connection with these delays is hotly debated.
When a child is referred to a health professional with normal hearing and unexplained difficulties in listening, or associated delays in language or literacy development, they should ideally be assessed with a combination of psychoacoustic (AP) tests, suitable for children and for use in a clinic, together with cognitive tests to measure attention, working memory, IQ, and language skills. Such a detailed examination needs to be relatively short and within the technical capability of any suitably qualified professional. Current tests for the presence of AP deficits tend to be poorly constructed and inadequately validated within the normal population. They have little or no reference to the presenting symptoms of the child, and typically include a linguistic component. Poor performance may thus reflect problems with language rather than with AP. To assist in the assessment of children with listening difficulties, pediatric audiologists need a single, standardized child-appropriate test battery based on the use of language-free stimuli.
We present the IMAP test battery which was developed at the MRC Institute of Hearing Research to supplement tests currently used to investigate cases of suspected AP deficits. IMAP assesses a range of relevant auditory and cognitive skills and takes about one hour to complete. It has been standardized in 1500 normally-hearing children from across the UK, aged 6-11 years. Since its development, it has been successfully used in a number of large scale studies both in the UK and the USA. IMAP provides measures for separating out sensory from cognitive contributions to hearing. It further limits confounds due to procedural effects by presenting tests in a child-friendly game-format. Stimulus-generation, management of test protocols and control of test presentation is mediated by the IHR-STAR software platform. This provides a standardized methodology for a range of applications and ensures replicable procedures across testers. IHR-STAR provides a flexible, user-programmable environment that currently has additional applications for hearing screening, mapping cochlear implant electrodes, and academic research or teaching.

A test battery (IMAP) for performing an in-depth assessment of auditory and cognitive abilities contributing to listening skills is described. It is quick to administer, child-friendly and free from linguistic confounds. Stimulus generation and protocol management are controlled via a software platform (IHR-STAR) to ensure replicable procedures.

The ability to hear is only the first step towards making sense of the range of information contained in an auditory signal. Of equal importance are the ...

Fast and Accurate Exhaled Breath Ammonia Measurement

This exhaled breath ammonia method uses a fast and highly sensitive spectroscopic method known as quartz enhanced photoacoustic spectroscopy (QEPAS) that uses a quantum cascade based laser. The monitor is coupled to a sampler that measures mouth pressure and carbon dioxide. The system is temperature controlled and specifically designed to address the reactivity of this compound. The sampler provides immediate feedback to the subject and the technician on the quality of the breath effort. Together with the quick response time of the monitor, this system is capable of accurately measuring exhaled breath ammonia representative of deep lung systemic levels. 
Because the system is easy to use and produces real time results, it has enabled experiments to identify factors that influence measurements. For example, mouth rinse and oral pH reproducibly and significantly affect results and therefore must be controlled. Temperature and mode of breathing are other examples. As our understanding of these factors evolves, error is reduced, and clinical studies become more meaningful. This system is very reliable and individual measurements are inexpensive. 
The sampler is relatively inexpensive and quite portable, but the monitor is neither. This limits options for some clinical studies and provides rational for future innovations.

Ammonia is an important physiologic metabolite relevant to various disease and wellness states. It is also a difficult molecule to measure in breath, which demands particular precautions be taken to obtain accurate results. Not all factors influencing ammonia are known, but progress can be difficult without accounting for these factors.

This exhaled breath ammonia method uses a fast and highly sensitive spectroscopic method known as quartz enhanced photoacoustic spectroscopy (QEPAS) that ...

Ultrasound Assessment of Endothelial Function: A Technical Guideline of the Flow-mediated Dilation Test

Cardiovascular disease is the primary cause of mortality and a major cause of disability worldwide. The dysfunction of the vascular endothelium is a pathological condition characterized mainly by a disruption in the balance between vasodilator and vasoconstrictor substances and is proposed to play an important role in the development of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease. Therefore, a precise evaluation of endothelial function in humans represents an important tool that could help better understand the etiology of multiple cardio-centric pathologies.
Over the past twenty-five years, many methodological approaches have been developed to provide an assessment of endothelial function in humans. Introduced in 1989, the FMD test incorporates a forearm occlusion and subsequent reactive hyperemia that promotes nitric oxide production and vasodilation of the brachial artery. The FMD test is now the most widely utilized, non-invasive, ultrasonic assessment of endothelial function in humans and has been associated with future cardiovascular events.
Although the FMD test could have clinical utility, it is a physiological assessment that has inherited several confounding factors that need to be considered. This article describes a standardized protocol for determining FMD including the recommended methodology to help minimize the physiological and technical issues and improve the precision and reproducibility of the assessment.

The flow mediated dilation (FMD) test is the most commonly utilized, non-invasive, ultrasound assessment of endothelial function in humans. Although the FMD test has been related with the prediction of future cardiovascular disease and events, it is a physiological assessment with many inherent confounding factors that need to be considered.

Cardiovascular disease is the primary cause of mortality and a major cause of disability worldwide. The dysfunction of the vascular endothelium is a ...

Open Tracheostomy Gastric Acid Aspiration Murine Model of Acute Lung Injury Results in Maximal Acute Nonlethal Lung Injury

Acid pneumonitis is a major cause of sterile acute lung injury (ALI) in humans. Acid pneumonitis spans the clinical spectrum from asymptomatic to acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), characterized by neutrophilic alveolitis, and injury to both alveolar epithelium and vascular endothelium. Clinically, ARDS is defined by acute onset of hypoxemia, bilateral patchy pulmonary infiltrates and non-cardiogenic pulmonary edema. Human studies have provided us with valuable information about the physiological and inflammatory changes in the lung caused by ARDS, which has led to various hypotheses about the underling mechanisms. Unfortunately, difficulties determining the etiology of ARDS, as well as a wide range of pathophysiology have resulted in a lack of critical information that could be useful in developing therapeutic strategies.
Translational animal models are valuable when their pathogenesis and pathophysiology accurately reproduce a concept proven in both in vitro and clinical settings. Although large animal models (e.g., sheep) share characteristics of the anatomy of human trachea-bronchial tree, murine models provide a host of other advantages including: low cost; short reproductive cycle lending itself to greater data acquisition; a well understood immunologic system; and a well characterized genome leading to the availability of a variety of gene deletion and transgenic strains. A robust model of low pH induced ARDS requires a murine ALI that targets mainly the alveolar epithelium, secondarily the vascular endothelium, as well as the small airways leading to the alveoli. Furthermore, a reproducible injury with wide differences between different injurious and non-injurious insults is important.
The murine gastric acid aspiration model presented here using hydrochloric acid employs an open tracheostomy and recreates a pathogenic scenario that reproduces the low pH pneumonitis injury in humans. Additionally, this model can be used to examine interaction of a low pH insult with other pulmonary injurious entities (e.g., food particles, pathogenic bacteria).

This protocol induces acute lung injury in a mouse that has close fidelity to the pathogenesis of acid pneumonitis observed in humans. We generate a maximal acute nonlethal low pH lung injury and account for differences in rodent-human anatomic respiratory structure using an open tracheostomy coupled with circumferential pressure release.

Acid pneumonitis is a major cause of sterile acute lung injury (ALI) in humans. Acid pneumonitis spans the clinical spectrum from asymptomatic to acute ...

Study of In Vivo Glucose Metabolism in High-fat Diet-fed Mice Using Oral Glucose Tolerance Test (OGTT) and Insulin Tolerance Test (ITT)

Obesity represents the most important single risk factor in the pathogenesis of type 2 diabetes, a disease which is characterized by a resistance to insulin-stimulated glucose uptake and a gross decompensation of systemic glucose metabolism. Despite considerable progress in the understanding of glucose metabolism, the molecular mechanisms of its regulation in health and disease remain under-investigated, while novel approaches to prevent and treat diabetes are urgently needed. Diet derived glucose stimulates the pancreatic secretion of insulin, which serves as the principal regulator of cellular anabolic processes during the fed-state and thus balances blood glucose levels to maintain systemic energy status. Chronic overfeeding triggers meta-inflammation, which leads to alterations in peripheral insulin receptor-associated signaling and thus reduces the sensitivity to insulin-mediated glucose disposal. These events ultimately result in elevated fasting glucose and insulin levels as well as a reduction in glucose tolerance, which in turn serve as important indicators of insulin resistance. Here, we present a protocol for the generation and metabolic characterization of high-fat diet (HFD)-fed mice as a frequently used model of diet-induced insulin resistance. We illustrate in detail the oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT), which monitors the peripheral disposal of an orally administered glucose load and insulin secretion over time. Additionally, we present a protocol for the insulin tolerance test (ITT) to monitor whole-body insulin action. Together, these methods and their downstream applications represent powerful tools to characterize the general metabolic phenotype of mice as well as to specifically assess alterations in glucose metabolism. They may be especially useful in the broad research field of insulin resistance, diabetes and obesity to provide a better understanding of pathogenesis as well as to test the effects of therapeutic interventions.

Study of In Vivo Glucose Metabolism in High-fat Diet-fed Mice Using Oral Glucose Tolerance Test OGTT and Insulin Tolerance Test ITT

The current article describes the generation and metabolic characterization of high-fat diet-fed mice as a model of diet-induced insulin resistance and obesity. It further features detailed protocols to perform the oral glucose tolerance test and the insulin tolerance test, monitoring whole-body alterations of glucose metabolism in vivo.

Obesity represents the most important single risk factor in the pathogenesis of type 2 diabetes, a disease which is characterized by a resistance to ...

A Blood-based Test for the Detection of ROS1 and RET Fusion Transcripts from Circulating Ribonucleic Acid Using Digital Polymerase Chain Reaction

We have developed novel methods for the isolation and characterization of tumor-derived circulating ribonucleic acid (cRNA) for blood-based liquid biopsy. Robust detection of cRNA recovered from blood represents a solution to a critical unmet need in clinical diagnostics. The test begins with the collection of whole blood into blood collection tubes containing preservatives that stabilize cRNA. Cell-free, exosomal, and platelet-associated RNA is isolated from plasma in this test system. The cRNA is reverse transcribed to complementary DNA (cDNA) and amplified using digital polymerase chain reaction (dPCR). Samples are evaluated for both the target biomarker as well as a control gene. Test validation included limit of detection, accuracy, and robustness studies with analytic samples. The method developed as a result of these studies reproducibly detect multiple fusion variants for ROS1 (C-Ros proto-oncogene 1; 8 variants) and RET (rearranged during transfection proto-oncogene; 8 variants). The sample processing workflow has been optimized so that test results can consistently be generated within 72 hours of sample receipt.

Detection of circulating ribonucleic acid (cRNA) from blood is an unmet need in clinical diagnostics. Here we describe methods that characterize cRNA from non-small cell lung cancer patients using sensitive and specific digital polymerase chain reaction. The tests meet design requirements to detect fusion variants within 72 hours.

We have developed novel methods for the isolation and characterization of tumor-derived circulating ribonucleic acid (cRNA) for blood-based liquid biopsy. ...

Protocol to Create Chronic Wounds in Diabetic Mice

Chronic wounds develop as a result of defective regulation in one or more complex cellular and molecular processes involved in proper healing. They impact ~6.5M people and cost ~$40B/year in the US alone. Although a significant effort has been invested in understanding how chronic wounds develop in humans, fundamental questions remain unanswered. Recently, we developed a novel mouse model for diabetic chronic wounds that have many characteristics of human chronic wounds. Using db/db-/- mice, we can generate chronic wounds by inducing high levels of oxidative stress (OS) in the wound tissue immediately after wounding, using a one-time treatment with inhibitors specific to the antioxidant enzymes catalase and glutathione peroxidase. These wounds have high levels of OS, develop biofilm naturally, become fully chronic within 20 days after treatment and can remain open more for more than 60 days. This novel model has many features of diabetic chronic wounds in humans and therefore can contribute significantly to advancing fundamental understanding of how wounds become chronic. This is a major breakthrough because chronic wounds in humans cause significant pain and distress to patients and result in amputation if unresolved. Moreover, these wounds are very expensive and time-consuming to treat, and lead to significant loss of personal income to patients. Advancements in this field of study through the use of our chronic wound model can significantly improve health care for millions who suffer under this debilitating condition. In this protocol, we describe in great detail the procedure to cause acute wounds to become chronic, which has not been done before.

Chronic wounds are developed from acute wounds on a diabetic mouse model by inducing high levels of oxidative stress after a full-thickness cutaneous wound. The wound is treated with inhibitors for catalase and glutathione peroxidase, resulting in impaired healing and biofilm development by bacteria present in the skin microbiome.

Chronic wounds develop as a result of defective regulation in one or more complex cellular and molecular processes involved in proper healing. They impact ...

Non-invasive Assessment of Dorsiflexor Muscle Function in Mice

Assessment of skeletal muscle contractile function is an important measurement for both clinical and research purposes. Numerous conditions can negatively affect skeletal muscle. This can result in a loss of muscle mass (atrophy) and/or loss of muscle quality (reduced force per unit of muscle mass), both of which are prevalent in chronic disease, muscle-specific disease, immobilization, and aging (sarcopenia). Skeletal muscle function in animals can be evaluated by a range of different tests. All tests have limitations related to the physiological testing environment, and the selection of a specific test often depends on the nature of the experiments. Here, we describe an in vivo, non-invasive technique involving a helpful and easy assessment of force frequency-curve (FFC) in mice that can be performed on the same animal over time. This permits monitoring of disease progression and/or efficacy&#160;of a potential therapeutic treatment.

Measurement of rodent skeletal muscle contractile function is a useful tool that can be used to track disease progression as well as efficacy of therapeutic intervention. We describe here the non-invasive, in vivo assessment of the dorsiflexor muscles that can be repeated over time in the same mouse.

Assessment of skeletal muscle contractile function is an important measurement for both clinical and research purposes. Numerous conditions can negatively ...

Using a Chemical Biopsy for Graft Quality Assessment

Kidney transplantation is a life-saving treatment for a large number of people with end-stage renal dysfunction worldwide. The procedure is associated with an increased survival rate and greater quality of patient&#8217;s life when compared to conventional dialysis. Regrettably, transplantology suffers from a lack of reliable methods for organ quality assessment. Standard diagnostic techniques are limited to macroscopic appearance inspection or invasive tissue biopsy, which do not provide comprehensive information about the graft. The proposed protocol aims to introduce solid phase microextraction (SPME) as an ideal analytical method for comprehensive metabolomics and lipidomic analysis of all low molecular compounds present in kidneys allocated for transplantation. The small size of the SPME probe enables performance of a chemical biopsy, which enables extraction of metabolites directly from the organ without any tissue collection. The minimum invasiveness of the method permits execution of multiple analyses over time: directly after organ harvesting, during its preservation, and immediately after revascularization at the recipient&#8217;s body. It is hypothesized that the combination of this novel sampling method with a high-resolution mass spectrometer will allow for discrimination of a set of characteristic compounds that could serve as biological markers of graft quality and indicators of possible development of organ dysfunction.

The protocol presents utilization of the chemical biopsy approach followed by comprehensive metabolomic and lipidomic analysis for quality assessment of kidney grafts allocated for transplantation.

Kidney transplantation is a life-saving treatment for a large number of people with end-stage renal dysfunction worldwide. The procedure is associated ...

A Protocol for Roux-en-Y Gastric Bypass in Rats using Linear Staplers

Roux-en-Y gastric bypass (RYGB) is commonly performed for the treatment of severe obesity and type 2 diabetes. However, the mechanism of weight loss and metabolic changes are not well understood. Multiple factors are thought to play a role, including reduced caloric intake, decreased nutrient absorption, increased satiety, the release of satiety-promoting hormones, shifts in bile acid metabolism, and alterations in the gut microbiota.
The rat RYGB model presents an ideal framework to study these mechanisms. Prior work on mouse models have had high mortality rates, ranging from 17 to 52%, limiting their adoption. Rat models demonstrate more physiologic reserve to surgical stimulus and are technically easier to adopt as they allow for the use of surgical staplers. One challenge with surgical staplers, however, is that they often leave a large gastric pouch which is not representative of RYGB in humans. 
In this protocol, we present a RYGB protocol in rats that result in a small gastric pouch using surgical staplers. Utilizing two stapler fires which remove the forestomach of the rat, we obtain a smaller gastric pouch similar to that following a typical human RYGB. Surgical stapling also results in better hemostasis than sharp division. Additionally, the forestomach of the rat does not contain any glands and its removal should not alter the physiology of RYGB.
Weight loss and metabolic changes in the RYGB cohort were significant compared to the sham cohort, with significantly lower glucose tolerance at 14 weeks. Furthermore, this protocol has an excellent survival of 88.9% after RYGB. The skills described in this protocol can be acquired without previous microsurgical experience. Once mastered, this procedure will provide a reproducible tool for studying the mechanisms and effects of RYGB.

Roux-en-Y gastric bypass (RYGB) is performed to treat obesity and diabetes. However, the mechanisms underlying RYGB's efficacy are not fully understood, and studies are limited by technical difficulty leading to high mortality in animal models. This article provides instructions on how to perform RYGB in rats with high success rates.

Roux-en-Y gastric bypass (RYGB) is commonly performed for the treatment of severe obesity and type 2 diabetes. However, the mechanism of weight loss and ...