Support was provided by startup-funds from the Pharmacology and Chemical Biology Department at the University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine. Acknowledgement of Jacob lab members who contributed to the video submission: Nicholas Graff.

All protocols described below are in accordance with the IACUC and IRB institutional review boards of the University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine.
1. Preparation of Hippocampal Neuronal Cultures in Tissue Culture Hood
Note: Use sterile technique and reagents throughout Protocol&#160;1.
<ol>
	<li>Prepare poly-D-lysine (0.1 mg/ml in H2O) coated glass coverslips as a substrate for the neuronal culture.
	<ol>
		<li>Place 4-5 round glass coverslips inside each 3.5&#160;cm tissue culture dish.</li>
		<li>Spot 70 &#956;l poly-D-lysine onto each 12&#160;mm coverslip. Note: for live imaging, a glass bottomed 3.5-cm tissue culture dish can be used (spot 200 &#956;l poly-D-lysine onto embedded 14&#160;mm glass coverslip).</li>
		<li>Leave the prepared dishes in the tissue culture hood O/N. To minimize poly-D-lysine evaporation and keep surfaces sterile in the tissue culture hood, close down the window sash and turn off the blower O/N. Note: UV lights are not used during the O/N incubation.</li>
		<li>The next morning, wash the dishes 3x with 2 ml of H2O.</li>
		<li>After removing the last H2O wash, add 2 ml of media to each 3.5&#160;cm dish and leave dishes in incubator until ready to plate the neurons in step 1.4.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Hippocampal neurons are prepared from embryonic day 18-19 (E18-19) rats (modified from&#160;Goslin22).</li>
	<li>Transfect freshly dissociated neurons on the day of culturing with 1-4 &#956;g of maxiprepped construct DNA. 
	Note: typically 3 &#956;g of DNA is transfected into 1-2 million neurons, with a viability of 50% and a transfection efficiency of 60% (e.g.&#160;starting with 2 million neurons: ((2 x&#160;106 neurons x&#160;0.5)0.6) provides approx. 1 million neurons; 600,000 of which are transfected1. Different amounts of construct DNA can be transfected when troubleshooting potential issues of over-expression, followed by appropriate characterization of construct localization and function.</li>
	<li>Plate the transfected neurons on the poly-D-lysine coated coverslips at a final density of approximately 200,000 neurons per 3.5&#160;cm dish. Note: for a glass bottomed dish, plate 40,000-50,000 neurons on the 14&#160;mm glass area.</li>
	<li>Replace the media 4-24 hr&#160;after preparation of neuronal cultures, then allow neurons to develop in the incubator until 14-17 days in vitro (DIV) or desired stage.</li>
</ol>
2. Endocytosis Assay
CAUTION: Note on &#945;-bungarotoxin and tubocurarine waste and handling:
<ol>
	<li>Handling of all peptide neurotoxins is recommended within the guidelines of Biosafety Level-2 (BL-2) research protocols. All proper personal protective gear must be worn. Lyophilized toxin powders should be reconstituted according to manufacturer&#39;s instructions. Toxin waste should be disposed of in compliance with the governing institution&#39;s Environmental Health and Safety guidelines.</li>
	<li>To remove potential peptide aggregates that may have formed during storage, &#945;-bungarotoxin aliquots should be centrifuged briefly before use, and the supernatant should be used for the experiment.</li>
	<li>&#945;-bungarotoxin (Bgt) stocks are resuspended to a concentration of 1 mg/ml in sterile H2O&#160;and stored in 10 &#956;l aliquots at -20 &#176;C. Fluorescently coupled Bgt stocks are used at 3 &#956;g/ml. Tubocurarine is used at a final concentration of 150 &#956;M.</li>
</ol>
<ol>
	<li>Set bench top heater block to 16 &#176;C in cold room with thin aluminum or stainless steel plate on top. Alternatively, if available, a bench top cooling/heating device can be used for each step requiring 16 &#176;C.</li>
	<li>Cool extracellular Hepes-buffered saline (HBS containing in mM: 135 NaCl, 4.7 KCl, 10 HEPES, 11 glucose, 1.2 MgCl2, and 2.5 CaCl2, pH 7.4) to 16 &#176;C in a water bath.</li>
	<li>Transfer neuron dishes to aluminum plate at 16 &#176;C and cool for 5 min.</li>
	<li>Remove media (keep conditioned media and reserve in incubator for step 2.8, endocytosis assay time points) and replace with 1 ml of 16 &#176;C HBS + tubocurarine (150 &#956;M) for 2 min.</li>
	<li>Remove HBS + tubocurarine to labeled waste container and replace with 1 ml of 16 &#176;C HBS + tubocurarine (150 &#956;M) + &#945;-bungarotoxin Alexa 594 [3 &#956;g/ml], incubating at 16 &#176;C for 15 min.</li>
	<li>Remove HBS + tubocurarine + &#945;-bungarotoxin Alexa 594 to labeled waste container and wash dishes 3x with 2 ml of 16 &#176;C HBS (the washes can be collected via aspiration in a vacuum flask containing 50 ml of 50 % bleach).</li>
	<li>For live imaging time series experiments following receptor endocytosis using a glass bottomed 3.5&#160;cm culture dish, perform steps 2.1-2.6, then transfer dish to heated stage (peltier device) on microscope, and begin imaging with a confocal or TIRF microscope setup.</li>
	<li>Transfer T = 0 time point coverslips into a dish of RT 4% paraformaldehyde /4% sucrose for 20 min, continuing with other coverslips to step 2.9.</li>
	<li>For other time points, replace HBS with conditioned equilibrated 37 &#176;C media (reserved in step 2.4) and return to incubator for endocytosis at 37 &#176;C. Note: suggested additional time points of T = 15, 30, and 60.</li>
	<li>At time points needed, take dishes from incubator, wash quickly twice with 2 ml of RT DPBS (DPBS no calcium, magnesium) then fix in 4% paraformaldehyde/4% sucrose for 20 min.</li>
	<li>After 20 min&#160;fixation, remove 4% paraformaldehyde /4% sucrose to waste container and wash dishes twice with 2 ml RT&#160;DPBS.</li>
	<li>Incubate coverslips at RT for 10 min in immunofluorescence block solution (block solution = 5% horse serum, 0.5% BSA in DPBS) containing 0.2% Triton X-100 to permeabilize the neurons and enable anti-GFP immunostaining of intracellular receptor pool and/or labeling of other proteins of interest.</li>
	<li>Remove block + 0.2% Triton X-100 and incubate coverslips in immunofluorescence block solution without Triton X-100 for 20-30 min.</li>
	<li>Perform primary antibody incubations of coverslips in block for several hours at RT or O/N&#160;at 4 &#176;C. Note: incubation of coverslips with primaries at 4 &#176;C O/N&#160;routinely produces improved immunofluorescence results.</li>
	<li>Wash coverslips 3x with DPBS (5 min for each wash step).</li>
	<li>Incubate coverslips with secondary antibodies in block solution for 1 hr at RT.</li>
	<li>Wash coverslips 3x with DPBS (5 min for each wash step).</li>
	<li>Mount coverslips, handling each coverslip individually: remove excess liquid from back of coverslip with lab tissue, then invert coverslip onto 4 &#956;l of mounting medium on a glass slide.</li>
	<li>Allow slides to dry at RT covered for 30 min then store at 4 &#176;C until ready to perform microscopy.</li>
	<li>Image acquisition and analysis of experiment with confocal microscopy (blind to experimental condition). 60X oil NA 1.49 immersion objective with the following lasers: Argon gas 488 nm, 561 diode, 640 diode.
	<ol>
		<li>Using the same image acquisition settings, acquire single Z section images with the neuronal cell body and several dendritic processes in focus.</li>
		<li>Quantify &#945;-bungarotoxin Alexa fluorescence signal and GFP immunostaining along 20 &#956;m of 3-4 proximal dendrites per neuron, using the same threshold for analysis of all endocytosis data.</li>
		<li>Analyze data from 10-12 neurons for each time point, repeating the experiment with several independent neuronal cultures.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>

<ol>
	<li>Jacob, T. C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Gephyrin+regulates+the+cell+surface+dynamics+of+synaptic+GABAA+receptors.">Gephyrin regulates the cell surface dynamics of synaptic GABAA receptors.</a> J. Neurosci. 25, 10469-10478 (2005).</li><li>Bogdanov, Y., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Synaptic+GABAA+receptors+are+directly+recruited+from+their+extrasynaptic+counterparts.">Synaptic GABAA receptors are directly recruited from their extrasynaptic counterparts.</a> EMBO J. 25, 4381-4389 (2006).</li><li>Thomas, P., Mortensen, M., Hosie, A. M., Smart, T. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Dynamic+mobility+of+functional+GABA(A)+receptors+at+inhibitory+synapses.">Dynamic mobility of functional GABA(A) receptors at inhibitory synapses.</a> Nat. Neurosci. 8, 889-897 (2005).</li><li>Wilkins, M. E., Li, X., Smart, T. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Tracking+Cell+Surface+GABAB+Receptors+Using+an+&#945;-Bungarotoxin+Tag.">Tracking Cell Surface GABAB Receptors Using an &#945;-Bungarotoxin Tag.</a> J. Biol. Chem. 283, 34745-34752 (2008).</li><li>Saliba, R. S., Pangalos, M., Moss, S. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+ubiquitin-like+protein+Plic-1+enhances+the+membrane+insertion+of+GABAA+receptors+by+increasing+their+stability+within+the+endoplasmic+reticulum.">The ubiquitin-like protein Plic-1 enhances the membrane insertion of GABAA receptors by increasing their stability within the endoplasmic reticulum.</a> J. Biol. Chem. 283, 18538-18544 (2008).</li><li>Bannai, H., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Activity-Dependent+Tuning+of+Inhibitory+Neurotransmission+Based+on+GABAAR+Diffusion+Dynamics.">Activity-Dependent Tuning of Inhibitory Neurotransmission Based on GABAAR Diffusion Dynamics.</a> Neuron. 62, 670-682 (2009).</li><li>Muir, J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=NMDA+receptors+regulate+GABAA+receptor+lateral+mobility+and+clustering+at+inhibitory+synapses+through+serine+327+on+the+gamma2+subunit.">NMDA receptors regulate GABAA receptor lateral mobility and clustering at inhibitory synapses through serine 327 on the gamma2 subunit.</a> Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 107, 16679-16684 (2010).</li><li>Katchalski-Katzir, E., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Design+and+synthesis+of+peptides+that+bind+alpha-bungarotoxin+with+high+affinity+and+mimic+the+three-dimensional+structure+of+the+binding-site+of+acetylcholine+receptor.">Design and synthesis of peptides that bind alpha-bungarotoxin with high affinity and mimic the three-dimensional structure of the binding-site of acetylcholine receptor.</a> Biophys. Chem. 100, 293-305 (2003).</li><li>Scherf, T., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+beta+-hairpin+structure+in+a+13-mer+peptide+that+binds+alpha+-bungarotoxin+with+high+affinity+and+neutralizes+its+toxicity.">A beta -hairpin structure in a 13-mer peptide that binds alpha -bungarotoxin with high affinity and neutralizes its toxicity.</a> Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 98, 6629-6634 (2001).</li><li>Wilkins, M. E., Li, X., Smart, T. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Tracking+cell+surface+GABAB+receptors+using+an+alpha-bungarotoxin+tag.">Tracking cell surface GABAB receptors using an alpha-bungarotoxin tag.</a> J. Biol. Chem. 283, 34745-34752 (2008).</li><li>Miesenbock, G., De Angelis, D. A., Rothman, J. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Visualizing+secretion+and+synaptic+transmission+with+pH-sensitive+green+fluorescent+proteins.">Visualizing secretion and synaptic transmission with pH-sensitive green fluorescent proteins.</a> Nature. 394, 192-195 (1998).</li><li>Jacob, T. C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Benzodiazepine+treatment+induces+subtype-specific+changes+in+GABAA+receptor+trafficking+and+decreases+synaptic+inhibition.">Benzodiazepine treatment induces subtype-specific changes in GABAA receptor trafficking and decreases synaptic inhibition.</a> Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 109, 18595-18600 (2012).</li><li>Anderson, M. J., Cohen, M. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Fluorescent+staining+of+acetylcholine+receptors+in+vertebrate+skeletal+muscle.">Fluorescent staining of acetylcholine receptors in vertebrate skeletal muscle.</a> J. Physiol. 237, 385-400 (1974).</li><li>Axelrod, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Crosslinkage+and+visualization+of+acetylcholine+receptors+on+myotubes+with+biotinylated+alpha-bungarotoxin+and+fluorescent+avidin.">Crosslinkage and visualization of acetylcholine receptors on myotubes with biotinylated alpha-bungarotoxin and fluorescent avidin.</a> Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 77, 4823-4827 (1980).</li><li>Axelrod, D., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Lateral+motion+of+fluorescently+labeled+acetylcholine+receptors+in+membranes+of+developing+muscle+fibers.">Lateral motion of fluorescently labeled acetylcholine receptors in membranes of developing muscle fibers.</a> Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 73, 4594-4598 (1976).</li><li>Sekine-Aizawa, Y., Huganir, R. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Imaging+of+receptor+trafficking+by+using+alpha-bungarotoxin-binding-site-tagged+receptors.">Imaging of receptor trafficking by using alpha-bungarotoxin-binding-site-tagged receptors.</a> Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 101, 17114-17119 (2004).</li><li>Jacob, T. C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=GABAA+receptor+membrane+trafficking+regulates+spine+maturity.">GABAA receptor membrane trafficking regulates spine maturity.</a> Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 106, 12500-12505 (2009).</li><li>Hannan, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=GABAB+receptor+internalisation+is+regulated+by+the+R2+subunit.">GABAB receptor internalisation is regulated by the R2 subunit.</a> J. Biol. Chem. , (2011).</li><li>Saliba, R. S., Kretschmannova, K., Moss, S. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Activity-dependent+phosphorylation+of+GABAA+receptors+regulates+receptor+insertion+and+tonic+current.">Activity-dependent phosphorylation of GABAA receptors regulates receptor insertion and tonic current.</a> EMBO. 31, 2937-2951 (2012).</li><li>Beqollari, D., Betzenhauser, M. J., Kammermeier, P. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Altered+G-Protein+Coupling+in+an+mGluR6+Point+Mutant+Associated+with+Congenital+Stationary+Night+Blindness.">Altered G-Protein Coupling in an mGluR6 Point Mutant Associated with Congenital Stationary Night Blindness.</a> Mol. Pharmacol. 76, 992-997 (2009).</li><li>Terunuma, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Prolonged+activation+of+NMDA+receptors+promotes+dephosphorylation+and+alters+postendocytic+sorting+of+GABAB+receptors.">Prolonged activation of NMDA receptors promotes dephosphorylation and alters postendocytic sorting of GABAB receptors.</a> Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 107, 13918-13923 (2010).</li><li>Goslin, K. G. B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Culturing+Nerve+Cells.">Culturing Nerve Cells.</a> , (1998).</li></ol>

The authors have nothing to disclose.

The BBS based fixed and live techniques described here can be used to track receptor or other plasma membrane protein trafficking in cell lines, neurons, and other primary cells. This method has been successfully used to study membrane insertion and removal of ligand-gated ion channels and GPCR and assess changes in trafficking due to the presence of receptor agonists and modulators. Key aspects include appropriate localization of the tag to an extracellular location and performing controls to ensure that addition of the...

The use of fluorescently coupled &#945;-bungarotoxin to study receptor localization and dynamics was pioneered in studies of the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor13-15, the toxin&#39;s endogenous target. Subsequently, incorporation of the minimal Bgt binding peptide (BBS) has been used to study trafficking of both excitatory and inhibitory ligand-gated ion channels and G protein coupled receptors2,10,16-21. This BBS-based technique provides advantages to other approaches used for trafficking studies such as surface biotinylation methods, antibody labeling of live cells with antibodies to extracellular epitopes, and fluorescence recovery after photobleaching (FRAP). During cell surface biotinylation free amines are covalently modified, with the potential to affect cellular activity. Antibody based studies have often been hampered by surface antigen clustering or capping, which can alter trafficking events. Due to the bleaching step for FRAP studies, an important concern is damaging the underlying cellular structure. An additional advantage is that BBS tagged constructs can also be used for biochemical methodologies with biotin-coupled bungarotoxin to asses receptor trafficking. This technique is readily applicable to cell lines and primary cells. For use in cells that express nicotinic acetylcholine (nAChR) receptors, the nAChR antagonist tubocurarine must be used throughout the protocol as indicated. Performing a simple surface Bgt labeling (equivalent to the T=0 time point for the endocytosis protocol) on untransfected cells in the absence of tubocurarine will provide evidence of endogenous nAChR.
An important consideration for using this technique is appropriate insertion of the BBS so that it is present at an extracellular location when the protein of interest is delivered to the plasma membrane. For example, the N-terminal domains of GABAAR subunits reside in the vesicular lumen during trafficking and become extracellular after receptor insertion in the plasma membrane, allowing specific labeling of cell surface receptors and assessment of their removal from the cell surface by endocytic events. We have previously shown that the addition of GFP, myc, or BBS epitopes to this domain of GABAAR subunits is functionally silent. Standard controls should be performed to ensure that the tagged protein is expressed at similar levels to an untagged construct, that it appropriately localized, and that it does not affect receptor function. This characterization of transfected constructs&#160;will also aid in troubleshooting overexpression concerns.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width:811px;" width="809">
	<colgroup>
		<col />
		<col />
		<col />
		<col />
	</colgroup>
	<tbody>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:227px;">Name of Material/ Equipment</td>
			<td style="width:201px;">Company</td>
			<td style="width:196px;">Catalog Number</td>
			<td style="width:187px;">Comments/Description</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:227px;">P3 Primary Cell 4D kit&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:201px;">Lonza</td>
			<td style="width:196px;">V4XP-3024</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;width:227px;">&#945;-bungarotoxin, Alexa Fluor 647 conjugate</td>
			<td style="width:201px;">Molecular Probes</td>
			<td style="width:196px;">B35450</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;width:227px;">&#945;-bungarotoxin, Alexa Fluor 488 conjugate</td>
			<td style="width:201px;">Molecular Probes</td>
			<td style="width:196px;">B13422</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;width:227px;">&#945;-bungarotoxin, Alexa Fluor 594 conjugate</td>
			<td style="width:201px;">Molecular Probes</td>
			<td style="width:196px;">B13423</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:227px;">(+)-Tubocurarine chloride</td>
			<td style="width:201px;">Tocris</td>
			<td style="width:196px;">2820</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:227px;">mounting medium&#160;</td>
			<td>DAKO</td>
			<td style="width:196px;">cS703</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">DPBS no calcium,magnesium&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:201px;">Invitrogen&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:196px;">14190-136</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:227px;">poly-D-lysine&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:201px;">Sigma</td>
			<td style="width:196px;">P6407</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:227px;">gephyrin antibody</td>
			<td>Synaptic Systems</td>
			<td>147 011</td>
			<td>1:300</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:227px;">VIAAT/VGAT antibody</td>
			<td>Synaptic Systems</td>
			<td>131 002</td>
			<td>1:1000</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:227px;">anti GFP</td>
			<td style="width:201px;">Life Technologies</td>
			<td>A6455</td>
			<td>1:2000</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;width:227px;">glass bottom tissue culture dish</td>
			<td style="width:201px;">MatTek Corporation</td>
			<td colspan="2">P35G-1.5-14-C - Mattek Dishes</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;width:227px;">coverslips (round cover glass), #1 thickness, 12 mm</td>
			<td style="width:201px;">Warner Instruments</td>
			<td style="width:196px;">640-0702</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

using an &#945;-bungarotoxin binding site tag to study gaba a receptor membrane localization and trafficking

It is increasingly evident that neurotransmitter receptors, including ionotropic GABA A receptors (GABAAR), exhibit highly dynamic trafficking and cell surface mobility1-7. To study receptor cell surface localization and endocytosis, the technique described here combines the use of fluorescent &#945;-bungarotoxin with cells expressing constructs containing an &#945;-bungarotoxin (Bgt) binding site (BBS). The BBS (WRYYESSLEPYPD) is based on the &#945; subunit of the muscle nicotinic acetylcholine receptor, which binds Bgt with high affinity8,9. Incorporation of the BBS site allows surface localization and measurements of receptor insertion or removal with application of exogenous fluorescent Bgt, as previously described in the tracking of GABAA and metabotropic GABAB receptors2,10. In addition to the BBS site, we inserted a pH-sensitive GFP (pHGFP11) between amino acids 4 and 5 of the mature GABAAR subunit by standard molecular biology and PCR cloning strategies (see Figure 1)12. The BBS is 3&#39; of the pH-sensitive GFP reporter, separated by a 13-amino acid alanine/proline linker. For trafficking studies described in this publication that are based on fixed samples, the pHGFP serves as a reporter of total tagged GABAAR subunit protein levels, allowing normalization of the Bgt labeled receptor population to total receptor population. This minimizes cell to cell Bgt staining signal variability resulting from higher or lower baseline expression of the tagged GABAAR subunits. Furthermore the pHGFP tag enables easy identification of construct expressing cells for live or fixed imaging experiments.

Characterization of a BBS tagged construct includes important controls such as determining if the expressed protein assembles properly (particularly with receptors composed of multiple subunits), traffics to the cell surface and localizes appropriately. Inhibitory synapses are composed of GABA A receptor surface clusters that colocalize with the inhibitory scaffold protein gephyrin and are apposed to presynaptic inhibitory terminals, identified by the vesicular inhibitory amino acid transporter that loads GABA and glycin...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Using an Î±-Bungarotoxin Binding Site Tag to Study GABA A Receptor Membrane Localization and Trafficking at JoVE.com

Using an &amp;#945;-Bungarotoxin Binding Site Tag to Study GABA A Receptor Membrane Localization and Trafficking

Here we demonstrate the use of fluorescent Alexa dye coupled to &#945;-bungarotoxin to measure GABA A receptor surface localization and endocytosis in hippocampal neurons. Through the use of constructs bearing a short extracellular tag that binds &#945;-bungarotoxin, analysis of plasma membrane protein endocytic trafficking can be achieved.

Using an &#945;-Bungarotoxin Binding Site Tag to Study GABA A Receptor Membrane Localization and Trafficking

It is increasingly evident that neurotransmitter receptors, including ionotropic GABA A receptors (GABAAR), exhibit highly dynamic trafficking and cell ...

using-an-bungarotoxin-binding-site-tag-to-study-gaba-receptor

Research

JoVE Journal

Neuroscience

15.8K Views.  University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine.  Здесь мы показываем, использование флуоресцентного красителя Alexa, соединенного с α-бунгаротоксина для измерения ГАМК поверхность локализации рецептора и эндоцитоза в нейронах гиппокампа. Благодаря использованию конструкций, несущих короткий внеклеточный ...

Video: Using an &#945;-Bungarotoxin Binding Site Tag to Study GABA A Receptor Membrane Localization and Trafficking

Quantitative Analysis of Synaptic Vesicle Pool Replenishment in Cultured Cerebellar Granule Neurons using FM Dyes

After neurotransmitter release in central nerve terminals, SVs are rapidly retrieved by endocytosis. Retrieved SVs are then refilled with neurotransmitter and rejoin the recycling pool, defined as SVs that are available for exocytosis1,2. The recycling pool can generally be subdivided into two distinct pools - the readily releasable pool (RRP) and the reserve pool (RP). As their names imply, the RRP consists of SVs that are immediately available for fusion while RP SVs are released only during intense stimulation1,2. It is important to have a reliable assay that reports the differential replenishment of these SV pools in order to understand 1) how SVs traffic after different modes of endocytosis (such as clathrin-dependent endocytosis and activity-dependent bulk endocytosis) and 2) the mechanisms controlling the mobilisation of both the RRP and RP in response to different stimuli.
FM dyes are routinely employed to quantitatively report SV turnover in central nerve terminals3-8. They have a hydrophobic hydrocarbon tail that allows reversible partitioning in the lipid bilayer, and a hydrophilic head group that blocks passage across membranes. The dyes have little fluorescence in aqueous solution, but their quantum yield increases dramatically when partitioned in membrane9. Thus FM dyes are ideal fluorescent probes for tracking actively recycling SVs. The standard protocol for use of FM dye is as follows. First they are applied to neurons and are taken up during endocytosis (Figure 1). After non-internalised dye is washed away from the plasma membrane, recycled SVs redistribute within the recycling pool. These SVs are then depleted using unloading stimuli (Figure 1). Since FM dye labelling of SVs is quantal10, the resulting fluorescence drop is proportional to the amount of vesicles released. Thus, the recycling and fusion of SVs generated from the previous round of endocytosis can be reliably quantified.
Here, we present a protocol that has been modified to obtain two additional elements of information. Firstly, sequential unloading stimuli are used to differentially unload the RRP and the RP, to allow quantification of the replenishment of specific SV pools. Secondly, each nerve terminal undergoes the protocol twice. Thus, the response of the same nerve terminal at S1 can be compared against the presence of a test substance at phase S2 (Figure 2), providing an internal control. This is important, since the extent of SV recycling across different nerve terminals is highly variable11.
Any adherent primary neuronal cultures may be used for this protocol, however the plating density, solutions and stimulation conditions are optimised for cerebellar granule neurons (CGNs)12,13.

A live fluorescence imaging technique to quantify the replenishment and mobilisation of specific synaptic vesicle (SV) pools in central nerve terminals is described. Two rounds of SV recycling are monitored in the same nerve terminals providing an internal control.

After neurotransmitter release in central nerve terminals, SVs are rapidly retrieved by endocytosis.  Retrieved SVs are then refilled with ...

Using MazeSuite and Functional Near Infrared Spectroscopy to Study Learning in Spatial Navigation

MazeSuite is a complete toolset to prepare, present and analyze navigational and spatial experiments1. MazeSuite can be used to design and edit adapted virtual 3D environments, track a participants' behavioral performance within the virtual environment and synchronize with external devices for physiological and neuroimaging measures, including electroencephalogram and eye tracking.
Functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIR) is an optical brain imaging technique that enables continuous, noninvasive, and portable monitoring of changes in cerebral blood oxygenation related to human brain functions2-7. Over the last decade fNIR is used to effectively monitor cognitive tasks such as attention, working memory and problem solving7-11. fNIR can be implemented in the form of a wearable and minimally intrusive device; it has the capacity to monitor brain activity in ecologically valid environments. 
Cognitive functions assessed through task performance involve patterns of brain activation of the prefrontal cortex (PFC) that vary from the initial novel task performance, after practice and during retention12. Using positron emission tomography (PET), Van Horn and colleagues found that regional cerebral blood flow was activated in the right frontal lobe during the encoding (i.e., initial na&iuml;ve performance) of spatial navigation of virtual mazes while there was little to no activation of the frontal regions after practice and during retention tests. Furthermore, the effects of contextual interference, a learning phenomenon related to organization of practice, are evident when individuals acquire multiple tasks under different practice schedules13,14. High contextual interference (random practice schedule) is created when the tasks to be learned are presented in a non-sequential, unpredictable order. Low contextual interference (blocked practice schedule) is created when the tasks to be learned are presented in a predictable order.
Our goal here is twofold: first to illustrate the experimental protocol design process and the use of MazeSuite, and second, to demonstrate the setup and deployment of the fNIR brain activity monitoring system using Cognitive Optical Brain Imaging (COBI) Studio software15. To illustrate our goals, a subsample from a study is reported to show the use of both MazeSuite and COBI Studio in a single experiment. The study involves the assessment of cognitive activity of the PFC during the acquisition and learning of computer maze tasks for blocked and random orders. Two right-handed adults (one male, one female) performed 315 acquisition, 30 retention and 20 transfer trials across four days. Design, implementation, data acquisition and analysis phases of the study were explained with the intention to provide a guideline for future studies.

MazeSuite is a complete toolset to prepare, present and analyze navigational and spatial experiments. Functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIR) is an optical brain imaging technique that enables noninvasive and portable monitoring of cerebral blood oxygenation changes. This paper summarizes collective use of MazeSuite and fNIR within a cognitive processing learning paradigm.

MazeSuite is a complete toolset to prepare, present and analyze navigational and spatial experiments1. MazeSuite can be used to design and edit adapted ...

Imaging pHluorin-tagged Receptor Insertion to the Plasma Membrane in Primary Cultured Mouse Neurons

A better understanding of the mechanisms governing receptor trafficking between the plasma membrane (PM) and intracellular compartments requires an experimental approach with excellent spatial and temporal resolutions. Moreover, such an approach must also have the ability to distinguish receptors localized on the PM from those in intracellular compartments. Most importantly, detecting receptors in a single vesicle requires outstanding detection sensitivity, since each vesicle carries only a small number of receptors. Standard approaches for examining receptor trafficking include surface biotinylation followed by biochemical detection, which lacks both the necessary spatial and temporal resolutions; and fluorescence microscopy examination of immunolabeled surface receptors, which requires chemical fixation of cells and therefore lacks sufficient temporal resolution1-6 . To overcome these limitations, we and others have developed and employed a new strategy that enables visualization of the dynamic insertion of receptors into the PM with excellent spatial and temporal resolutions 7-17 . The approach includes tagging of a pH-sensitive GFP, the superecliptic pHluorin 18, to the N-terminal extracellular domain of the receptors. Superecliptic pHluorin has the unique property of being fluorescent at neutral pH and non-fluorescent at acidic pH (pH &lt; 6.0). Therefore, the tagged receptors are non-fluorescent when within the acidic lumen of intracellular trafficking vesicles or endosomal compartments, and they become readily visualized only when exposed to the extracellular neutral pH environment, on the outer surface of the PM. Our strategy consequently allows us to distinguish PM surface receptors from those within intracellular trafficking vesicles. To attain sufficient spatial and temporal resolutions, as well as the sensitivity required to study dynamic trafficking of receptors, we employed total internal reflection fluorescent microscopy (TIRFM), which enabled us to achieve the optimal spatial resolution of optical imaging (~170 nm), the temporal resolution of video-rate microscopy (30 frames/sec), and the sensitivity to detect fluorescence of a single GFP molecule. By imaging pHluorin-tagged receptors under TIRFM, we were able to directly visualize individual receptor insertion events into the PM in cultured neurons. This imaging approach can potentially be applied to any membrane protein with an extracellular domain that could be labeled with superecliptic pHluorin, and will allow dissection of the key detailed mechanisms governing insertion of different membrane proteins (receptors, ion channels, transporters, etc.) to the PM.

By tagging the extracellular domains of membrane receptors with superecliptic pHluorin, and by imaging these fusion receptors in cultured mouse neurons, we can directly visualize individual vesicular insertion events of the receptors to the plasma membrane. This technique will be instrumental in elucidating the molecular mechanisms governing receptor insertion to the plasma membrane.

A better understanding of the mechanisms governing receptor trafficking between the plasma membrane (PM) and intracellular compartments requires an ...

Local Application of Drugs to Study Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptor Function in Mouse Brain Slices

Tobacco use leads to numerous health problems, including cancer, heart disease, emphysema, and stroke. Addiction to cigarette smoking is a prevalent neuropsychiatric disorder that stems from the biophysical and cellular actions of nicotine on nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) throughout the central nervous system. Understanding the various nAChR subtypes that exist in brain areas relevant to nicotine addiction is a major priority.
Experiments that employ electrophysiology techniques such as whole-cell patch clamp or two-electrode voltage clamp recordings are useful for pharmacological characterization of nAChRs of interest. Cells expressing nAChRs, such as mammalian tissue culture cells or Xenopus laevis oocytes, are physically isolated and are therefore easily studied using the tools of modern pharmacology. Much progress has been made using these techniques, particularly when the target receptor was already known and ectopic expression was easily achieved. Often, however, it is necessary to study nAChRs in their native environment: in neurons within brain slices acutely harvested from laboratory mice or rats. For example, mice expressing "hypersensitive" nAChR subunits such as &alpha;4 L9&prime;A mice 1 and &alpha;6 L9&prime;S mice 2, allow for unambiguous identification of neurons based on their functional expression of a specific nAChR subunit. Although whole-cell patch clamp recordings from neurons in brain slices is routinely done by the skilled electrophysiologist, it is challenging to locally apply drugs such as acetylcholine or nicotine to the recorded cell within a brain slice. Dilution of drugs into the superfusate (bath application) is not rapidly reversible, and U-tube systems are not easily adapted to work with brain slices.
In this paper, we describe a method for rapidly applying nAChR-activating drugs to neurons recorded in adult mouse brain slices. Standard whole-cell recordings are made from neurons in slices, and a second micropipette filled with a drug of interest is maneuvered into position near the recorded cell. An injection of pressurized air or inert nitrogen into the drug-filled pipette causes a small amount of drug solution to be ejected from the pipette onto the recorded cell. Using this method, nAChR-mediated currents are able to be resolved with millisecond accuracy. Drug application times can easily be varied, and the drug-filled pipette can be retracted and replaced with a new pipette, allowing for concentration-response curves to be created for a single neuron. Although described in the context of nAChR neurobiology, this technique should be useful for studying many types of ligand-gated ion channels or receptors in neurons from brain slices.

In this paper, we describe a useful method to study ligand-gated ion channel function in neurons of acutely isolated brain slices. This method involves the use of a drug-filled micropipette for local application of drugs to neurons recorded using standard patch clamp techniques.

Tobacco use leads to numerous health problems, including cancer, heart disease, emphysema, and stroke. Addiction to cigarette smoking is a prevalent ...

Fast Micro-iontophoresis of Glutamate and GABA: A Useful Tool to Investigate Synaptic Integration

One of the fundamental interests in neuroscience is to understand the integration of excitatory and inhibitory inputs along the very complex structure of the dendritic tree, which eventually leads to neuronal output of action potentials at the axon. The influence of diverse spatial and temporal parameters of specific synaptic input on neuronal output is currently under investigation, e.g. the distance-dependent attenuation of dendritic inputs, the location-dependent interaction of spatially segregated inputs, the influence of GABAergig inhibition on excitatory integration, linear and non-linear integration modes, and many more.
With fast micro-iontophoresis of glutamate and GABA it is possible to precisely investigate the spatial and temporal integration of glutamatergic excitation and GABAergic inhibition. Critical technical requirements are either a triggered fluorescent lamp, light-emitting diode (LED), or a two-photon scanning microscope to visualize dendritic branches without introducing significant photo-damage of the tissue. Furthermore, it is very important to have a micro-iontophoresis amplifier that allows for fast capacitance compensation of high resistance pipettes. Another crucial point is that no transmitter is involuntarily released by the pipette during the experiment.
Once established, this technique will give reliable and reproducible signals with a high neurotransmitter and location specificity. Compared to glutamate and GABA uncaging, fast iontophoresis allows using both transmitters at the same time but at very distant locations without limitation to the field of view. There are also advantages compared to focal electrical stimulation of axons: with micro-iontophoresis the location of the input site is definitely known and it is sure that only the neurotransmitter of interest is released. However it has to be considered that with micro-iontophoresis only the postsynapse is activated and presynaptic aspects of neurotransmitter release are not resolved. In this article we demonstrate how to set up micro-iontophoresis in brain slice experiments.

In this article we introduce fast micro-iontophoresis of neurotransmitters as a technique to investigate integration of postsynaptic signals with high spatial and temporal precision.

One of the fundamental interests in neuroscience is to understand the integration of excitatory and inhibitory inputs along the very complex structure of ...

Membrane Potential Dye Imaging of Ventromedial Hypothalamus Neurons From Adult Mice to Study Glucose Sensing

Studies of neuronal activity are often performed using neurons from rodents less than 2 months of age due to the technical difficulties associated with increasing connective tissue and decreased neuronal viability that occur with age. Here, we describe a methodology for the dissociation of healthy hypothalamic neurons from adult-aged mice. The ability to study neurons from adult-aged mice allows the use of disease models that manifest at a later age and might be more developmentally accurate for certain studies. Fluorescence imaging of dissociated neurons can be used to study the activity of a population of neurons, as opposed to using electrophysiology to study a single neuron. This is particularly useful when studying a heterogeneous neuronal population in which the desired neuronal type is rare such as for hypothalamic glucose sensing neurons. We utilized membrane potential dye imaging of adult ventromedial hypothalamic neurons to study their responses to changes in extracellular glucose. Glucose sensing neurons are believed to play a role in central regulation of energy balance. The ability to study glucose sensing in adult rodents is particularly useful since the predominance of diseases related to dysfunctional energy balance (e.g.&#160;obesity) increase with age.

The activity of single neurons from adult-aged mice can be studied by dissociating neurons from specific brain regions and using fluorescent membrane potential dye imaging. By testing responses to changes in glucose, this technique can be used to study the glucose sensitivity of adult ventromedial hypothalamic neurons.

Studies of neuronal activity are often performed using neurons from rodents less than 2 months of age due to the technical difficulties associated with ...

Brain Slice Biotinylation: An Ex Vivo Approach to Measure Region-specific Plasma Membrane Protein Trafficking in Adult Neurons

Regulated endocytic trafficking is the central mechanism facilitating a variety of neuromodulatory events, by dynamically controlling receptor, ion channel, and transporter cell surface presentation on a minutes time scale.&#160;There is a broad diversity of mechanisms that control endocytic trafficking of individual proteins. Studies investigating the molecular underpinnings of trafficking have primarily relied upon surface biotinylation to quantitatively measure changes in membrane protein surface expression in response to exogenous stimuli and gene manipulation.&#160;However, this approach has been mainly limited to cultured cells, which may not faithfully reflect the physiologically relevant mechanisms at play in adult neurons.&#160;Moreover, cultured cell approaches may underestimate region-specific differences in trafficking mechanisms.&#160;Here, we describe an approach that extends cell surface biotinylation to the acute brain slice preparation.&#160;We demonstrate that this method provides a high-fidelity approach to measure rapid changes in membrane protein surface levels in adult neurons.&#160;This approach is likely to have broad utility in the field of neuronal endocytic trafficking.

Brain Slice Biotinylation: An Ex Vivo Approach to Measure Region-specific Plasma Membrane Protein Trafficking in Adult Neurons

Neuronal membrane trafficking dynamically controls plasma membrane protein availability and significantly impacts neurotransmission.&#160;To date, it has been challenging to measure neuronal endocytic trafficking in adult neurons.&#160;Here, we describe a highly effective, quantitative method to measure rapid changes in surface protein expression ex vivo in acute brain slices.

Regulated endocytic trafficking is the central mechanism facilitating a variety of neuromodulatory events, by dynamically controlling receptor, ion ...

Localization of Odorant Receptor Genes in Locust Antennae by RNA In Situ Hybridization

Insects have evolved sophisticated olfactory reception systems to sense exogenous chemical signals. These chemical signals are transduced by Olfactory Receptor Neurons (ORNs) housed in hair-like structures, called chemosensilla, of the antennae. On the ORNs&#39; membranes, Odorant Receptors (ORs) are believed to be involved in odor coding. Thus, being able to identify genes localized to the ORNs is necessary to recognize OR genes, and provides a fundamental basis for further functional in situ studies. The RNA expression levels of specific ORs in insect antennae are very low, and preserving insect tissue for histology is challenging. Thus, it is difficult to localize an OR to a specific type of sensilla using RNA in situ hybridization. In this paper, a detailed and highly effective RNA in situ hybridization protocol particularly for lowly expressed OR genes of insects, is introduced. In addition, a specific OR gene was identified by conducting double-color fluorescent in situ hybridization experiments using a co-expressing receptor gene, Orco, as a marker.

Localization of Odorant Receptor Genes in Locust Antennae by RNA In Situ Hybridization

This paper describes a detailed and highly effective RNA in situ hybridization protocol particularly for low-level expressed Odorant Receptor (OR) genes, as well as other genes, in insect antennae using digoxigenin (DIG)-labeled or biotin-labeled probes.

Insects have evolved sophisticated olfactory reception systems to sense exogenous chemical signals. These chemical signals are transduced by Olfactory ...

Live Images of GLUT4 Protein Trafficking in Mouse Primary Hypothalamic Neurons Using Deconvolution Microscopy

Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) is a global health crisis which is characterized by insulin signaling impairment and chronic inflammation in peripheral tissues. The hypothalamus in the central nervous system (CNS) is the control center for energy and insulin signal response regulation. Chronic inflammation in peripheral tissues and imbalances of certain chemokines (such as CCL5, TNF&#945;, and IL-6) contribute to diabetes and obesity. However, the functional mechanism(s) connecting chemokines and hypothalamic insulin signal regulation still remain unclear.
In vitro primary neuron culture models are convenient and simple models which can be used to investigate insulin signal regulation in hypothalamic neurons. In this study, we introduced exogeneous GLUT4 protein conjugated with GFP (GFP-GLUT4) into primary hypothalamic neurons to track GLUT4 membrane translocation upon insulin stimulation. Time-lapse images of GFP-GLUT4 protein trafficking were recorded by deconvolution microscopy, which allowed users to generate high-speed, high-resolution images without damaging the neurons significantly while conducting the experiment. The contribution of CCR5 in insulin regulated GLUT4 translocation was observed in CCR5 deficient hypothalamic neurons, which were isolated and cultured from CCR5 knockout mice. Our results demonstrated that the GLUT4 membrane translocation efficiency was reduced in CCR5 deficient hypothalamic neurons after insulin stimulation.

This protocol describes a technique for observation of real-time Green Fluorescence Protein (GFP) tagged Glucose Transporter 4 (GLUT4) protein trafficking upon insulin stimulation and characterization of the biological role of CCR5 in the insulin&#8211;GLUT4 signaling pathway with Deconvolution Microscopy.

Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) is a global health crisis which is characterized by insulin signaling impairment and chronic inflammation in peripheral ...

An Alternative Approach to Study Primary Events in Neurodegeneration Using Ex Vivo Rat Brain Slices

Despite&#160;numerous studies that attempt to develop reliable animal models&#160;which reflecting the primary processes underlying neurodegeneration, very few have been widely accepted. Here, we propose&#160;a new procedure&#160;adapted from the well-known ex vivo brain slice technique, which offers a closer in vivo-like scenario than in vitro preparations, for investigating the early events triggering cell degeneration, as observed in Alzheimer&#39;s disease (AD). This variation consists of simple and easily reproducible steps, which enable preservation of the anatomical cytoarchitecture of the selected brain region and its local functionality in a physiological milieu. Different anatomical areas can be obtained from the same brain, providing the opportunity to perform multiple experiments with the treatments in question in a site-, dose-, and time-dependent manner. Potential limitations&#160;which could affect the outcomes related to this methodology are related to the conservation of the tissue, i.e., the maintenance of its anatomical integrity during the slicing and incubation steps and the section thickness, which can influence the biochemical and immunohistochemical analysis. This approach can be employed for different purposes, such as exploring molecular mechanisms involved in physiological or pathological conditions, drug screening, or dose-response assays. Finally, this protocol could also reduce the number of animals employed in behavioral studies. The application reported here has been recently described and tested for the first time on ex vivo rat brain slices containing the basal forebrain (BF), which is one of the cerebral regions primarily affected in AD. Specifically, it has been demonstrated that the administration of a toxic peptide derived from the C-terminus of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) could prompt an AD-like profile, triggering, along the antero-posterior axis of the BF, a differential expression of proteins altered in AD, such as the alpha7 nicotinic receptor (&#945;7-nAChR), phosphorylated Tau (p-Tau), and amyloid beta (A&#946;).

An Alternative Approach to Study Primary Events in Neurodegeneration Using Ex Vivo Rat Brain Slices

We present a method which can&#160;provide further insights into the early events underlying neurodegeneration and based on the established ex-vivo brain technique, combining the advantages of in vivo and in vitro experiments. Moreover, it represents a unique opportunity for direct comparison of treated and untreated group in the same anatomical plane.

Despite&#160;numerous studies that attempt to develop reliable animal models&#160;which reflecting the primary processes underlying neurodegeneration, ...