The authors would like to acknowledge technical support from Joy Yao and Dr. Karen Alt,&#160;as well as funding from the NHMRC and NHF.

All experiments involving animals were approved by the Alfred Medical Research and Education Precinct Animal Ethics Committee (E/1534/2015/B). All surgical manipulations were performed under full anesthesia and the animals did not experience pain at any stage. All experiments described are non-recovery.
1. Preparation
<ol>
	<li>Cut thin bands of filter paper (1 mm x 2 mm).</li>
	<li>Freshly prepare 2 solutions of ferric chloride of 4% (w/v) and 6% (w/v) diluted into deionized water. Prepare rhodamine 6G solution 0.3% in PBS, filtered through 0.22 &#181;m.</li>
	<li>Cut a small piece (5 mm x 1 cm) from the white plastic of syringe wrapper.</li>
</ol>
2. Mesentery Arteriole Thrombus Formation Observed by Intravital Microscopy
<ol>
	<li>Weigh a 10-12 weeks old male C57Bl/6 wild type mouse and anesthetize accordingly with a mixture of ketamine (100 mg/kg) and xylazine (10 mg/kg) though intraperitoneal injection. Monitor the depth of anesthesia by response to toe, tail and/or skin pinch, reactivity from corneal and palpebral pinch, and absence of whiskers movement.&#160;If necessary, inject a second dose of ketamine (50 mg/kg) to maintain anesthesia of the animal. Apply vet ointment on the eyes to prevent dryness while under anesthesia. Place the mouse in a small petri dish placed on a heating pad adjusted to 37 &#176;C. 
	NOTE: Although IP injection may result in pain for the animals, the duration of this discomfort will be minimal (less than 3 sec). Pain and discomfort associated with injections will be minimized through the use of experienced and competent personnel and appropriate needle size (25 G). Following all the procedures, euthanize all animals using an overdose of ketamine and xylazine followed by cervical dislocation.</li>
	<li>Perform an abdominal midline incision of about 3 cm in the skin and carefully cut the peritoneum.</li>
	<li>Position the mouse on the side of the petri dish, gently exteriorize its intestines and carefully spread the mesentery with 2 cotton buds to bring a suitable vessel to the surface of the Petri dish. Dry properly with a delicate wiper. 
	NOTE: To limit the movement of the mesenteric vessels, Papaverine may be used to inhibit gut peristalsis.</li>
	<li>Soak the tail of the mouse in warm water to dilate the vessels and inject 30 &#181;l&#160;of Rhodamine 6G (0.3%) into the tail vein of the mouse with a 29 G syringe to label leukocytes and platelets.</li>
	<li>Place the Petri dish under an inverted microscope and focus on the chosen arteriole using the bright field channel.</li>
	<li>Soak a band of filter paper with 6% (w/v) iron (III) chloride and apply the filter paper on the arteriole with two forceps; the first one to hold the filter paper, the second one to gently press it onto the area of interest. Observe thrombus formation in the first 10 sec following the deposition of the filter paper. 
	NOTE: It is quite common to injure the surrounded microvasculature and the precision of the deposition of the filter paper and the gently pressure is therefore important to limit this issue.</li>
	<li>Observe thrombus formation by fluorescence microscopy (TRITC channel: peak excitation 557 nm, peak emission 576 nm), through the filter paper. Observe the circulating leukocytes and platelets that have taken up the Rhodamine 6G and their aggregation into the thrombus is therefore easy to identify.</li>
	<li>Take the filter paper off after 1 min of exposure to iron (III) chloride and continue to monitor the formation of the thrombus. Wash the vessel with PBS.</li>
	<li>Observe and record the dynamic formation of the thrombus highlighted with the labelling of platelets and leukocytes with the Rhodamine 6G. Capture the images and measure the size of the thrombus. The herein presented images were obtained with an inverted intravital microscope, though an objective 4X, in the TRITC fluorescence channel.</li>
	<li>Following all the procedures, euthanize the animal using an overdose of ketamine and xylazine followed by cervical dislocation.</li>
</ol>
3. Carotid Artery Thrombus Formation Assessed by Blood Flow Velocity Measurement
<ol>
	<li>Weigh a 10-12 weeks old male C57Bl/6 mouse and anesthetize accordingly with a mixture of ketamine (100 mg/kg) and xylazine (10 mg/kg) though intraperitoneal injection. Apply vet ointment on the eyes to prevent dryness while under anesthesia.</li>
	<li>Fix the mouse under an operating microscope using sticky tape on legs, on a heating pad adjusted to 37 &#176;C.</li>
	<li>Make a small pillow out of one wiper and tape it under the head of the mouse to elevate the head slightly. Use a thread loop with tongs to pull the snout down (use upper teeth). This will expose the region of the carotid artery for easy access.</li>
	<li>Perform a small 5 mm deep incision of the skin directly below the jaw, down to the sternum.</li>
	<li>Dissect the fascia and isolate a fragment of either the left or right common carotid artery above the bifurcation.</li>
	<li>Carefully introduce tweezers in-between the artery and the nerve to separate them. Do not disturb the nerve running close to the artery and avoid touching too much of the carotid artery as it may causes damage to the vessel. Isolate a section of a least 5 mm of the artery.</li>
	<li>Dry the area of the artery properly with wipers to avoid that any liquid interferes with the FeCl3.</li>
	<li>Put the small white plastic piece under the isolated part of the common carotid so the FeCl3 does not soak in the surrounding tissues. For this purpose, use a second forceps to bring the piece to the first one then slowly slide the plastic paper under the artery.</li>
	<li>Soak a piece of filter paper with 4% (w/v) or 6% (w/v) ferric chloride and place it all around the artery.</li>
	<li>After 3 min exposure, take off the filter paper, rinse with PBS and dry the area with wipers.</li>
	<li>Place the Doppler flow probe around the vessel at the injured area and start recording the changes in flow. In the healthy common carotid of adult mice, the flow is usually around 1 ml/min. Caution! contact of the probe with ferric chloride will damage the probe so any contact should be avoided. The herein presented data were obtained with a Transonic System Inc. Flow meter, TS420 perivascular module equipped with a Nano Doppler flow probe 0.5 PBS. 
	NOTE:The concentration of ferric chloride can modify the kinetics of thrombus formation resulting in different occlusion times. Thus, an exposure to 6% (w/v) ferric chloride gives a faster occlusion than exposure to 4% (w/v) ferric chloride.</li>
	<li>Following all the procedures, euthanize all animals using an overdose of ketamine and xylazine followed by cervical dislocation and carefully clean the Doppler probe.</li>
</ol>

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	<li>Leadley, R. J., Chi, L., Rebello, S. S., Gagnon, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Contribution+of+in+vivo+models+of+thrombosis+to+the+discovery+and+development+of+novel+antithrombotic+agents.">Contribution of in vivo models of thrombosis to the discovery and development of novel antithrombotic agents.</a> J Pharmacol Toxicol Methods. 43 (2), 101-116 (2000).</li><li>Johnson, G. J., Griggs, T. 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The authors have nothing to disclose.

The ferric chloride induced thrombosis model is an excellent research tool. As shown in this study, it is extremely easy to implement and when used in combination with intravital microscopy or Doppler flowmeter, it provides a good real-time monitoring of thrombus formation. Adjusting the time exposure and the concentration of FeCl3, it also offers the possibility to produce either non-occlusive or occlusive thrombi.
However, this method also has some limitations. In the carotid arte...

The study of the mechanisms involved in the development of thrombosis and the evaluation of the effectiveness of anti-thrombotic drugs requires well established experimental animal models. Large animal models were the first to be used as they provide large vessels more similar to humans than rodents1. However, high cost, the larger facilities required and the difficulty in manipulating them genetically are major drawbacks to their use and large animals are now limited to late preclinical studies once preliminary tests on rodents have given conclusive results2. With wide availability of transgenic and knockout strains and their small size that minimizes the quantity of antithrombotic drugs required for in vivo testing, mice are mainly used for thrombosis research. Therefore, several models of thrombotic disorders have been developed in mice3.
Many established thrombosis models disrupt the intima layer of the vessel wall, followed by the exposure of the sub endothelial extracellular matrix to the blood flow inducing the formation of blood clots4. The thrombi may result from the exposure of collagen which triggers platelets activation or/and from the exposure of tissue factor which activates the coagulation cascade5. Several techniques are then employed to achieve the initial vessel injury. Pierangeli et al. developed a mechanical disruption model with a microsurgery tool on the femoral vein6. Kikushi et al. described a model which consists in the administration of a photo reactive compound (Rose Bengal) which accumulates in the lipid bilayer of endothelial cells followed by the specific excitation of the vessel wall of interest with green light (540 nm)7. The injury can also be induced by a short high-intensity pulse laser illumination8. Another technique firstly established on the carotid artery of rats consists in the topical application of ferric chloride (FeCl3)9. In this case, the vessel denudation results from free radicals generated by FeCl3 which causes lipid peroxidation and destruction of endothelial cells10. The injury induces the expression of several adhesion molecules triggering platelet adhesion and aggregation as well as leukocytes recruitment. It has been demonstrated that leukocytes, particularly neutrophils, play a crucial role in the activation of the blood coagulation cascade leading to thrombosis11. This method is well suited to reproduce the coagulation cascade; investigators must keep in mind that, in this mouse model, thrombosis is typically induced in healthy vessels whereas thrombosis in humans is mainly occurring in diseased e.g. atherosclerotic vessels.
As this model is very simple to implement and is also effective in mice, it is now the mostly used thrombosis model for small animal in vivo studies. In addition, this technique offers the possibility to induce the formation of thrombi in a variety of vessels. Target vessels can be arteries or veins of large diameter (carotid, femoral, vena cava) or small diameter (mesentery, cremaster)12&#8211;14. More recently, it was also used on the proximal middle cerebral artery to develop a model of stroke15. The thrombosis formation may be directly observed by intravital microscopy after fluorescent labeling of platelet and leukocytes or monitored by measuring the blood flow decrease with a temperature probe or a Doppler probe12,16,17. Several parameters such as occlusion time, thrombus formation time or thrombus size may then be investigated. The physiological differences between the vessels investigated result in significant variations in the thrombi obtained. Therefore, investigators usually select the target vessel according to the parameters they want to measure and/or the disease setting they want to investigate. Typically, the model on the carotid artery is more relevant for research on atherothrombosis related to myocardial infarction or stroke whereas studies on the vena cava are more relevant for research on deep venous thrombosis. The accessibility of the different vessels also determines the method used to measure thrombus growth. For instance, the mesenteric vessels are easy to access making this model well suited for intravital microscopic observation and the study of the dynamics of thrombus formation. The carotid artery is less accessible but bigger enabling blood flow measurements and provide an excellent model to study occlusive thrombosis.
The ferric chloride induced thrombosis model has provided tremendous progress in the understanding of this pathology. It has been used in many studies focusing on the role of von Willebrand factor in thrombosis formation18,19. Combined with genetic modification techniques, it has allowed the identification of many specific gene involved in thrombotic disorders. Lamrani et al. for example have shown that a knock-in of the JAK2V617F gene is associated with an accelerating formation of unstable clot20. Zhang et al. have investigated the physiological implication of the P2Y12 platelet receptor and demonstrated that transgenic mice overexpressing specifically this receptor in platelets only, displayed a more rapid and stable thrombus formation in mesenteric artery injured with FeCl321. The crucial role of Tissue-type plasminogen activator (tPA) and urokinase-type plasminogen activator (uPA) in the fibrin degradation process has also been investigated in this method22. Furthermore this model also provides a simple and accurate way of testing the fibrinolytic capacities of many novel drugs in vivo. For instance, Wang et al. have used this model for the preclinical validation of a novel recombinant plasminogen activator targeted against activated platelets23. This method also enabled the validation of therapeutic proteins isolated from the salivary of ticks, vampire bats, and mosquitos or from the venom of snakes with specific identification of the target24-27. These examples demonstrate the versatility of the ferric chloride model. In this article, we focus on two methods and study ferric chloride induced thrombosis on two different vessel type; mesenteric vessel and carotid artery.

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			<td>TS420</td>
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			<td>Insulin syringe (29 G)</td>
			<td>BD Ultra-Fine</td>
			<td>326103</td>
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			<td>Cotton tipped applicators</td>
			<td>BSN medical</td>
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			<td>Dynek dysilk sutures</td>
			<td>Dynek Pty Ltd</td>
			<td>CS30100</td>
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			<td>Dulbecco&#39;s phosphate buffer saline (PBS)</td>
			<td>Gibco life technologies</td>
			<td>21600-069</td>
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			<td>Heating pad</td>
			<td>Kirchner</td>
			<td>T60</td>
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ferric chloride-induced thrombosis mouse model on carotid artery and mesentery vessel

Severe thrombosis and its ischemic consequences such as myocardial infarction, pulmonary embolism and stroke are major worldwide health issues. The ferric chloride injury is now a well-established technique to rapidly and accurately induce the formation of thrombi in exposed veins or artery of small and large diameter. This model has played a key role in the study of the pathophysiology of thrombosis, in the discovery and validation of novel antithrombotic drugs and in the understanding of the mechanism of action of these new agents. Here, the implementation of this technique on a mesenteric vessel and carotid artery in mice is presented. The method describes how to label circulating leukocytes and platelets with a fluorescent dye and to observe, by intravital microscopy on the exposed mesentery, their accumulation at the injured vessel wall which leads to the formation of a thrombus. On the carotid artery, the occlusion caused by the clot formation is measured by monitoring the blood flow with a Doppler probe.

The fluorescent intravital microscopy observation of the mesentery will reveal the accumulation of Rhodamine 6G labeled platelets and leukocytes along the vessel wall injured by FeCl3. The progressive formation of a partial thrombus is monitored in a 200 &#181;m mesentery vessel (Figure 1). A thrombus slowly appears and is clearly identifiable after the first minute of exposure to FeCl3 (Figure 1, t = 60 sec). 40 sec after the removal of the filter paper soaked with...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Ferric Chloride-induced Thrombosis Mouse Model on Carotid Artery and Mesentery Vessel at JoVE.com

Ferric Chloride-induced Thrombosis Mouse Model on Carotid Artery and Mesentery Vessel

The FeCl3 induced thrombosis model in mice is described herein. A method to monitor thrombus growth by intravital microscopy observation on a mesenteric vessel and by blood flow measurement in the carotid artery is presented.

Severe thrombosis and its ischemic consequences such as myocardial infarction, pulmonary embolism and stroke are major worldwide health issues. The ferric ...

ferric-chloride-induced-thrombosis-mouse-model-on-carotid-artery

Research

JoVE Journal

Medicine

17.4K Views.  Baker IDI Heart and Diabetes Institute. The FeCl3 induced thrombosis model in mice is described herein. A method to monitor thrombus growth by intravital microscopy observation on a mesenteric vessel and by blood flow measurement in the carotid artery is presented.

Video: Ferric Chloride-induced Thrombosis Mouse Model on Carotid Artery and Mesentery Vessel

A Model of Disturbed Flow-Induced Atherosclerosis in Mouse Carotid Artery by Partial Ligation and a Simple Method of RNA Isolation from Carotid Endothelium

Despite the well-known close association, direct evidence linking disturbed flow to atherogenesis has been lacking. We have recently used a modified version of carotid partial ligation methods [1,2] to show that it acutely induces low and oscillatory flow conditions, two key characteristics of disturbed flow, in the mouse common carotid artery. Using this model, we have provided direct evidence that disturbed flow indeed leads to rapid and robust atherosclerosis development in Apolipoprotein E knockout mouse [3]. We also developed a method of endothelial RNA preparation with high purity from the mouse carotid intima [3]. Using this mouse model and method, we found that partial ligation causes endothelial dysfunction in a week, followed by robust and rapid atheroma formation in two weeks in a hyperlipidemic mouse model along with features of complex lesion formation such as intraplaque neovascularization by four weeks. This rapid in vivo model and the endothelial RNA preparation method could be used to determine molecular mechanisms underlying flow-dependent regulation of vascular biology and diseases. Also, it could be used to test various therapeutic interventions targeting endothelial dysfunction and atherosclerosis in considerably reduced study duration.

This describes a partial carotid ligation surgery, which causes disturbed flow conditions and subsequent atherosclerosis development (in two weeks) with intraplaque neo-vascularization (in four weeks) in the mouse common carotid artery. We also describe a novel method of RNA isolation from the carotid intima, providing high purity endothelial RNA.

Despite the well-known close association, direct evidence linking disturbed flow to atherogenesis has been lacking. We have recently used a modified ...

Mouse Complete Stasis Model of Inferior Vena Cava Thrombosis

Venous thromboembolism (VTE) includes both deep vein thrombosis (DVT) and pulmonary embolism (PE). In the United States (U.S.), the high morbidity and mortality rates make VTE a serious health concern 1-2. After heart disease and stroke, VTE is the third most common vascular disease 3. In the U.S. alone, there is an estimated 900,000 people affected each year, with 300,000 deaths occurring annually 3. A reliable in vivo animal model to study the mechanisms of this disease is necessary.
The advantages of using the mouse complete stasis model of inferior vena cava thrombosis are several. The mouse model allows for the administration of very small volumes of limited availability test agents, reducing costs dramatically. Most promising is the potential for mice with gene knockouts that allow specific inflammatory and coagulation factor functions to be delineated. Current molecular assays allow for the quantitation of vein wall, thrombus, whole blood, and plasma for assays. However, a major concern involving this model is the operative size constraints and the friability of the vessels. Also, due to the small IVC sample weight (mean 0.005 grams) it is necessary to increase animal numbers for accurate statistical analysis for tissue, thrombus, and blood assays such as real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), western blot, enzyme-linked immunosorbent (ELISA), zymography, vein wall and thrombus cellular analysis, and whole blood and plasma assays 4-8.
The major disadvantage with the stasis model is that the lack of blood flow inhibits the maximal effect of administered systemic therapeutic agents on the thrombus and vein wall.

The mouse complete stasis model of inferior vena cava thrombosis yields quantifiable amounts of vein wall tissue and thrombus. It has proven useful for evaluating interactions between the vein wall and the occlusive thrombus and in assessing the progression from acute to chronic inflammation.

Venous thromboembolism (VTE) includes both deep vein thrombosis (DVT) and pulmonary embolism (PE).  In the United States (U.S.), the high morbidity and ...

Mouse Model of Middle Cerebral Artery Occlusion

Stroke is the most common fatal neurological disease in the United States 1. The majority of strokes (88%) result from blockage of blood vessels in the brain (ischemic stroke) 2. Since most ischemic strokes (~80%) occur in the territory of middle cerebral artery (MCA) 3, many animal stroke models that have been developed have focused on this artery. The intraluminal monofilament model of middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) involves the insertion of a surgical filament into the external carotid artery and threading it forward into the internal carotid artery (ICA) until the tip occludes the origin of the MCA, resulting in a cessation of blood flow and subsequent brain infarction in the MCA territory 4. The technique can be used to model permanent or transient occlusion 5. If the suture is removed after a certain interval (30 min, 1 h, or 2 h), reperfusion is achieved (transient MCAO); if the filament is left in place (24 h) the procedure is suitable as a model of permanent MCAO. This technique does not require craniectomy, a neurosurgical procedure to remove a portion of skull, which may affect intracranial pressure and temperature 6. It has become the most frequently used method to mimic permanent and transient focal cerebral ischemia in rats and mice 7,8. To evaluate the extent of cerebral infarction, we stain brain slices with 2,3,5-triphenyltetrazolium chloride (TTC) to identify ischemic brain tissue 9. In this video, we demonstrate the MCAO method and the determination of infarct size by TTC staining.

We demonstrate in the video a method for producing a middle cerebral artery occlusion in adult mice using an intraluminal monofilament. We also show how to evaluate the extent of cerebral infarction by 2,3,5-triphenyltetrazolium chloride (TTC) staining.

Stroke is the most common fatal neurological disease in the United States 1. The majority of strokes (88%) result from blockage of blood vessels in the ...

A Murine Model of Stent Implantation in the Carotid Artery for the Study of Restenosis

Despite the considerable progress made in the stent development in the last decades, cardiovascular diseases remain the main cause of death in western countries. Beside the benefits offered by the development of different drug-eluting stents, the coronary revascularization bears also the life-threatening risks of in-stent thrombosis and restenosis. Research on new therapeutic strategies is impaired by the lack of appropriate methods to study stent implantation and restenosis processes. Here, we describe a rapid and accessible procedure of stent implantation in mouse carotid artery, which offers the possibility to study in a convenient way the molecular mechanisms of vessel remodeling and the effects of different drug coatings.

A model of stent implantation in mouse carotid artery is described. Compared to other similar methods, this procedure is very rapid, simple and accessible, offering the possibility to study in a convenient way the vascular wall reaction to different drug-eluting stents and the molecular mechanisms of restenosis.

Despite  the considerable progress made in the stent development in the last decades,  cardiovascular diseases remain the main cause of death in western ...

Adult Mouse Venous Hypertension Model: Common Carotid Artery to External Jugular Vein Anastomosis.

The understanding of the pathophysiology of brain arteriovenous malformations and arteriovenous fistulas has improved thanks to animal models. A rat model creating an artificial fistula between the common carotid artery (CCA) and the external jugular vein (EJV) has been widely described and proved technically feasible. This construct provokes a consistent cerebral venous hypertension (CVH), and therefore has helped studying the contribution of venous hypertension to formation, clinical symptoms, and prognosis of brain AVMs and dural AVFs. Equivalent mice models have been only scarcely described and have shown trouble with stenosis of the fistula. An established murine model would allow the study of not only pathophysiology but also potential genetic therapies for these cerebrovascular diseases.
We present a model of arteriovenous fistula that produces a durable intracranial venous hypertension in the mouse. Microsurgical anastomosis of the murine CCA and EJV can be difficult due to diminutive anatomy and frequently result in a non-patent fistula. In this step-by-step protocol we address all the important challenges encountered during this procedure. Avoiding excessive retraction of the vein during the exposure, using 11-0 sutures instead of 10-0, and making a carefully planned end-to-side anastomosis are some of the critical steps. Although this method requires advanced microsurgical skills and a longer learning curve that the equivalent in the rat, it can be consistently developed.
This novel model has been designed to integrate transgenic mouse techniques with a previously well-established experimental system that has proved useful to study brain AVMs and dural AVFs. By opening the possibility of using transgenic mice, a broader spectrum of valid models can be achieved and genetic treatments can also be tested. The experimental construct could also be further adapted to the study of other cerebrovascular diseases related with venous hypertension such as migraine, transient global amnesia, transient monocular blindness, etc.

We describe a method for creating a reliable model of cerebral venous hypertension in the adult mouse. This model has been widely described and tested in the rat. This new counterpart in the mice opens the possibility of using genetic modified animals and thereby broadens the applications of the model.

The understanding of the pathophysiology of brain arteriovenous malformations and arteriovenous fistulas has improved thanks to animal models. A rat model ...

Vascular Balloon Injury and Intraluminal Administration in Rat Carotid Artery

The carotid artery balloon injury model in rats has been well established for over two decades. It remains an important method to study the molecular and cellular mechanisms involved in vascular smooth muscle dedifferentiation, neointima formation and vascular remodeling. Male Sprague-Dawley rats are the most frequently employed animals for this model. Female rats are not preferred as female hormones are protective against vascular diseases and thus introduce a variation into this procedure. The left carotid is typically injured with the right carotid serving as a negative control. Left carotid injury is caused by the inflated balloon that denudes the endothelium and distends the vessel wall. Following injury, potential therapeutic strategies such as the use of pharmacological compounds and either gene or shRNA transfer can be evaluated. Typically for gene or shRNA transfer, the injured section of the vessel lumen is locally transduced for 30 min with viral particles encoding either a protein or shRNA for delivery and expression in the injured vessel wall. Neointimal thickening representing proliferative vascular smooth muscle cells usually peaks at 2 weeks after injury. Vessels are mostly harvested at this time point for cellular and molecular analysis of cell signaling pathways as well as gene and protein expression. Vessels can also be harvested at earlier time points to determine the onset of expression and/or activation of a specific protein or pathway, depending on the experimental aims intended. Vessels can be characterized and evaluated using histological staining, immunohistochemistry, protein/mRNA assays, and activity assays. The intact right carotid artery from the same animal is an ideal internal control. Injury-induced changes in molecular and cellular parameters can be evaluated by comparing the injured artery to the internal right control artery. Likewise, therapeutic modalities can be evaluated by comparing the injured and treated artery to the control injured only artery.

This protocol uses a balloon catheter to cause an intraluminal injury on the rat carotid artery and henceforth elicit neointimal hyperplasia. This is a well-established model for studying the mechanisms of vascular remodeling in response to injury. It is also widely used to determine the validity of potential therapeutic approaches.

The carotid artery balloon injury model in rats has been well established for over two decades. It remains an important method to study the molecular and ...

A Rat Carotid Balloon Injury Model to Test Anti-vascular Remodeling Therapeutics

The rat carotid balloon injury is a well-established surgical model that has been used to study arterial remodeling and vascular cell proliferation. It is also a valuable model system to test, and to evaluate therapeutics and drugs that negate maladaptive remodeling in the vessel. The injury, or barotrauma, in the vessel lumen caused by an inflated balloon via an inserted catheter induces subsequent neointimal growth, often leading to hyperplasia or thickening of the vessel wall that narrows, or obstructs the lumen. The method described here is sufficiently sensitive, and the results can be obtained in relatively short time (2 weeks after the surgery). The efficacy of the drug or therapeutic against the induced-remodeling can be evaluated either by the post-mortem pathological and histomorphological analysis, or by ultrasound sonography in live animals. In addition, this model system has also been used to determine the therapeutic window or the time course of the administered drug. These studies can leadto the development of a better administrative strategy and a better therapeutic outcome. The procedure described here provides a tool for translational studies that bring drug and therapeutic candidates from bench research to clinical applications.

The rat carotid balloon injury model described below allows researchers to evaluate drugs or therapeutics that negate injury-induced arterial hyperplasia. Detailed pre-surgical preparation, surgical procedure, and post-surgical cares of the animal are described.

The rat carotid balloon injury is a well-established surgical model that has been used to study arterial remodeling and vascular cell proliferation. It is ...

Ferric Chloride-induced Murine Thrombosis Models

Arterial thrombosis (blood clot) is a common complication of many systemic diseases associated with chronic inflammation, including atherosclerosis, diabetes, obesity, cancer and chronic autoimmune rheumatologic disorders. Thrombi are the cause of most heart attacks, strokes and extremity loss, making thrombosis an extremely important public health problem. Since these thrombi stem from inappropriate platelet activation and subsequent coagulation, targeting these systems therapeutically has important clinical significance for developing safer treatments. Due to the complexities of the hemostatic system, in vitro experiments cannot replicate the blood-to-vessel wall interactions; therefore, in vivo studies are critical to understand pathological mechanisms of thrombus formation. To this end, various thrombosis models have been developed in mice. Among them, ferric chloride (FeCl3) induced vascular injury is a widely used model of occlusive thrombosis that reports platelet activation and aggregation in the context of an aseptic closed vascular system. This model is based on redox-induced endothelial cell injury, which is simple and sensitive to both anticoagulant and anti-platelets drugs. The time required for the development of a thrombus that occludes blood flow gives a quantitative measure of vascular injury, platelet activation and aggregation that is relevant to thrombotic diseases. We have significantly refined this FeCl3-induced vascular thrombosis model, which makes the data highly reproducible with minimal variation. Here we describe the model and present representative data from several experimental set-ups that demonstrate the utility of this model in thrombosis research.

We report a refined procedure of the ferric chloride (FeCl3)-induced thrombosis models on carotid and mesenteric artery as well as vein, characterized efficiently using intravital microscopy to monitor time to occlusive thrombi formation.

Arterial thrombosis (blood clot) is a common complication of many systemic diseases associated with chronic inflammation, including atherosclerosis, ...

Phase Contrast Magnetic Resonance Imaging in the Rat Common Carotid Artery

Phase contrast magnetic resonance imaging (PC-MRI) is a noninvasive approach that can quantify flow-related parameters such as blood flow. Previous studies have shown that abnormal blood flow may be associated with systemic vascular risk. Thus, PC-MRI can facilitate the translation of data obtained from animal models of cardiovascular diseases to pertinent clinical investigations. In this report, we describe the procedure for measuring blood flow in the common carotid artery (CCA) of rats using cine-gated PC-MRI and discuss relevant analysis methods. This procedure can be performed in a live, anesthetized animal and does not require euthanasia after the procedure. The proposed scanning parameters yield repeatable measurements for blood flow, indicating excellent reproducibility of the results. The PC-MRI procedure described in this article can be used for pharmacological testing, pathophysiological assessment, and cerebral hemodynamics evaluation.

The overall goal of this procedure is to measure the blood flow in the rat common carotid artery by using noninvasive phase contrast magnetic resonance imaging.

Phase contrast magnetic resonance imaging (PC-MRI) is a noninvasive approach that can quantify flow-related parameters such as blood flow. Previous ...

Ferric Chloride-induced Canine Carotid Artery Thrombosis: A Large Animal Model of Vascular Injury

Occlusive arterial thrombosis leading to cerebral ischemic stroke and myocardial infarction contributes to ~13 million deaths every year globally. Here, we have translated a vascular injury model from a small animal into a large animal (canine), with slight modifications that can be used for pre-clinical screening of prophylactic and thrombolytic agents. In addition to the surgical methods, the modified protocol describes the step-by-step methods to assess carotid artery canalization by angiography, detailed instructions to process both the brain and carotid artery for histological analysis to verify carotid canalization and cerebral hemorrhage, and specific parameters to complete an assessment of downstream thromboembolic events by utilizing magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). In addition, specific procedural changes from the previously well-established small animal model necessary to translate into a large animal (canine) vascular injury are discussed.

Here, we present the modifications necessary to a well characterized and commonly used small animal ferric chloride-induced (FeCl3) carotid artery injury model for use in a large animal vascular injury model. The resulting model can be utilized for pre-clinical trial assessment of both prophylactic and thrombolytic pharmacological and mechanical interventions.

Occlusive arterial thrombosis leading to cerebral ischemic stroke and myocardial infarction contributes to ~13 million deaths every year globally. Here, ...