SynVivo technology was developed under grant #2R44HL076034 from the NHLBI.

1. Priming the SynVivo-SMN Microfluidic Device
<ol>
	<li>Each port (inlet/outlet) of the device is comprised of two parallel ports &#8211; one for flowing in surface coating moieties (adhesion molecules, growth matrices, etc.) and/or cells for seeding and the other for running the assay (Figure 1A).</li>
	<li>Completely submerge the SynVivo-SMN microfluidic device (Figure 1B) in a Petri dish containing sterile deionized (DI) water and place the dish into a vacuum desiccator. Allow the desiccator to run until all of the air is removed from the channels of the device. This should take approximately 15 min.</li>
	<li>Before removing the device from the water, place Tygon tubing (O.D. of 0.06" and I.D. of 0.02") primed with water into each port of the device with fine-point forceps. The tubing should be approximately 1 inch in length. The device can now be removed from the water. Figure 1C shows image of the device with the tubing.</li>
</ol>
2. Coating the Microfluidic Device with Desired Protein (e.g., Avidin)
<ol>
	<li>Using a pipette, place a drop of water (approximately 100 &#181;l) around the base of the one inlet port tubing. Carefully remove the tubing used to prime the device. The drop of water will prevent air from entering the device.</li>
	<li>Prepare a 1 ml syringe loaded with avidin at a concentration of 20 &#181;g/ml. Connect the syringe to a 24 G&#160;stainless steel needle and tubing. Insert the tubing to one of the inlet ports of the device. Clamp the inlet port not being utilized with a jaw clamp.</li>
	<li>Inject avidin at a flow rate of 1 &#181;l/min for 10 min to allow complete perfusion of the device. At the end of the flow time, clamp the tubing with the jaw clamp and place the device at 4 &#176;C overnight.</li>
</ol>
3. Flowing the Biotinylated Particles for Adhesion Experiments
<ol>
	<li>Allow the device to come to room temperature. Place the device on an inverted fluorescence microscope equipped with a motorized stage and a high performance camera.</li>
	<li>Prepare a solution of 2 &#181;m biotinylated particles at a concentration of 5 x 106 particles/ml in Phosphate Buffer Saline (PBS). Load the particles into a 1 ml syringe. Prepare a second 1 ml syringe of PBS only. Load each syringe on a syringe pump and connect to needle and tubing.</li>
	<li>Using a pipette, place a drop of water (approximately 100 &#181;l) around the base of the inlet port tubing. Carefully remove the tubing used to coat the device. The drop of water will prevent air from entering the device.</li>
	<li>Carefully insert the tubing's for biotinylated particles and PBS from step 3.2 into each of the inlet ports. Figure 2A shows image of the set-up.</li>
	<li>Start injecting biotinylated particles at a flow rate of 2.5 &#181;l/min. Monitor the inlet port on the microscope. At the first sign of particles, begin the timer and continue flow for 3 min.</li>
	<li>At the end of the 3 min, stop the flow of biotinylated particles while simultaneously staring the flow of PBS at a flow rate of 2.5 &#181;l/min. Allow PBS to flow in the device for 3 min to wash off unbound particles.</li>
</ol>
4. Acquiring Images and Making Area of Interest (AOI) Measurements Using Imaging Software (NIKON Elements)
<ol>
	<li>Use the "scan large image" function in the imaging software to acquire the image of the entire device.</li>
	<li>Sequentially number the bifurcations in the device and create a circular AOI with twice the diameter of the channels. In this case, set the AOI diameter to 200 &#181;m since the channel diameter is 100 &#181;m.</li>
	<li>Use the automated count function in the imaging software to export the number of particles in each AOI to an MS Excel sheet.</li>
	<li>Likewise, use the automated count feature to export the number of particles in the entire device.</li>
</ol>
5. Particle Flux Analysis Using Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) Models
<ol>
	<li>CFD simulations are run using commercially available software (CFD-ACE+, ESI Inc.) for the SynVivo-SMN device topology. The results are stored in a database for analyzing experimental observations. The simulation results store information on wall shear rates, velocity, particle flux, and adhesion in the device.</li>
	<li>The simulation results are used to determine the number of particles entering each AOI based on a given inlet particle concentration.</li>
</ol>
6. Generating Shear Adhesion Map
<ol>
	<li>Calculate % of adhesion by dividing the adhered particles in the bifurcation by the particles flowing in the bifurcation as shown in equation 6.1. 
	<img alt="Equation 1" fo:content-width="3in" src="/files/ftp_upload/51025/51025eq1.jpg" /> where the number of particles adhered and the particles flowing are obtained from protocol steps 4.3 and 5.2, respectively.</li>
	<li>Plot the shear adhesion map using the shear rate at each bifurcation of the networks obtained from the database in step (5.1) and the % adhesion values obtained from equation 6.1.</li>
</ol>

<ol>
	<li>Weitz-Schmidt, G., Chreng, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cell+adhesion+assays.">Cell adhesion assays.</a> Methods Mol Biol. 757, 15-30 (2012).</li><li>Parsons, S. A., Jurzinsky, C., Cuvelier, S. L., Patel, K. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Studying+leukocyte+recruitment+under+flow+conditions.">Studying leukocyte recruitment under flow conditions.</a> Methods Mol Biol. 946, 285-300 (2013).</li><li>Luscinskas, F. W., Gimbrone, M. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Jr+Endothelial-dependent+mechanisms+in+chronic+inflammatory+leukocyte+recruitment.">Jr Endothelial-dependent mechanisms in chronic inflammatory leukocyte recruitment.</a> Annu Rev Med. 47, 413-421 (1996).</li><li>Adriani, G., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+preferential+targeting+of+the+diseased+microvasculature+by+disk-like+particles.">The preferential targeting of the diseased microvasculature by disk-like particles.</a> Biomaterials. 33, 5504-5513 (2012).</li><li>Decuzzi, P., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Flow+chamber+analysis+of+size+effects+in+the+adhesion+of+spherical+particles.">Flow chamber analysis of size effects in the adhesion of spherical particles.</a> Int J Nanomedicine. 2, 689-696 (2007).</li><li>Zou, X., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=PSGL-1+derived+from+human+neutrophils+is+a+high-efficiency+ligand+for+endothelium-expressed+E-selectin+under+flow.">PSGL-1 derived from human neutrophils is a high-efficiency ligand for endothelium-expressed E-selectin under flow.</a> Am J Physiol Cell Physiol. 289, 415-424 (2005).</li><li>Sakhalkar, H. S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Leukocyte-inspired+biodegradable+particles+that+selectively+and+avidly+adhere+to+inflamed+endothelium+in+vitro+and+in+vivo.">Leukocyte-inspired biodegradable particles that selectively and avidly adhere to inflamed endothelium in vitro and in vivo.</a> Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 100, 15895-15900 (2003).</li><li>Van Kruchten, R., Cosemans, J. M., Heemskerk, J. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Measurement+of+whole+blood+thrombus+formation+using+parallel-plate+flow+chambers+-+a+practical+guide.">Measurement of whole blood thrombus formation using parallel-plate flow chambers - a practical guide.</a> Platelets. 23, 229-242 (2012).</li><li>Ganguly, A., Zhang, H., Sharma, R., Parsons, S., Patel, K. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Isolation+of+human+umbilical+vein+endothelial+cells+and+their+use+in+the+study+of+neutrophil+transmigration+under+flow+conditions.">Isolation of human umbilical vein endothelial cells and their use in the study of neutrophil transmigration under flow conditions.</a> J Vis Exp. 66 (66), (2012).</li><li>Shirure, V. S., Reynolds, N. M., Burdick, M. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mac-2+binding+protein+is+a+novel+E-selectin+ligand+expressed+by+breast+cancer+cells.">Mac-2 binding protein is a novel E-selectin ligand expressed by breast cancer cells.</a> PLoS One. 7, (2012).</li><li>Ploppa, A., Schmidt, V., Hientz, A., Reutershan, J., Haeberle, H. A., Noh&#233;, B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mechanisms+of+leukocyte+distribution+during+sepsis:+an+experimental+study+on+the+interdependence+of+cell+activation,+shear+stress+and+endothelial+injury.">Mechanisms of leukocyte distribution during sepsis: an experimental study on the interdependence of cell activation, shear stress and endothelial injury.</a> Crit Care. 14, 201 (2010).</li><li>Oh, H., Diamond, S. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Ethanol+enhances+neutrophil+membrane+tether+growth+and+slows+rolling+on+P-selectin+but+reduces+capture+from+flow+and+firm+arrest+on+IL-1-treated+endothelium.">Ethanol enhances neutrophil membrane tether growth and slows rolling on P-selectin but reduces capture from flow and firm arrest on IL-1-treated endothelium.</a> J Immunol. 181, 2472-2482 (2008).</li><li>Resto, V. A., Burdick, M. M., Dagia, N. M., McCammon, S. D., Fennewald, S. M., Sackstein, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=L-selectin-mediated+lymphocyte-cancer+cell+interactions+under+low+fluid+shear+conditions.">L-selectin-mediated lymphocyte-cancer cell interactions under low fluid shear conditions.</a> J Biol Chem. 283, 15816-15824 (2008).</li><li>Enders, S., Bernhard, G., Zakrzewicz, A., Tauber, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Inhibition+of+L-selectin+binding+by+polyacrylamide-based+conjugates+under+defined+flow+conditions.">Inhibition of L-selectin binding by polyacrylamide-based conjugates under defined flow conditions.</a> Biochim Biophys Acta. 1770, 1441-1449 (2007).</li><li>Prabhakarpandian, B., Goetz, D. J., Swerlick, R. A., Chen, X., Kiani, M. F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Expression+and+functional+significance+of+adhesion+molecules+on+cultured+endothelial+cells+in+response+to+ionizing+radiation.">Expression and functional significance of adhesion molecules on cultured endothelial cells in response to ionizing radiation.</a> Microcirculation. 8, 355-364 (2001).</li><li>Brown, D. C., Larson, R. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Improvements+to+parallel+plate+flow+chambers+to+reduce+reagent+and+cellular+requirements.">Improvements to parallel plate flow chambers to reduce reagent and cellular requirements.</a> BMC Immunology. 2, 9 (2001).</li><li>Zheng, W., Zhang, W., Jiang, X. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Precise+control+of+cell+adhesion+by+combination+of+surface+chemistry+and+soft+lithography.">Precise control of cell adhesion by combination of surface chemistry and soft lithography.</a> Adv Healthc Mater. 2, 95-108 (2013).</li><li>Qian, T., Wang, Y. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Micro/nano-fabrication+technologies+for+cell+biology.">Micro/nano-fabrication technologies for cell biology.</a> Med Biol Eng Comput. 48, 1023-1032 (2010).</li><li>Biswas, A., Bayer, I. S., Biris, A. S., Wang, T., Dervishi, E., Faupel, F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Advances+in+top-down+and+bottom-up+surface+nanofabrication:+techniques,+applications+&amp;+future+prospects.">Advances in top-down and bottom-up surface nanofabrication: techniques, applications &amp; future prospects.</a> Adv Colloid Interface Sci. 170, 2-27 (2012).</li><li>Whitesides, G. M., Ostuni, E., Takayama, S., Jiang, X., Ingber, D. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Soft+lithography+in+biology+and+biochemistry.">Soft lithography in biology and biochemistry.</a> Annu Rev Biomed Eng. 3, 335-373 (2001).</li><li>McDonald, J. C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Fabrication+of+microfluidic+systems+in+poly(dimethylsiloxane).">Fabrication of microfluidic systems in poly(dimethylsiloxane).</a> Electrophoresis. 21, 27-40 (2000).</li><li>Prabhakarpandian, B., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Synthetic+microvascular+networks+for+quantitative+analysis+of+particle+adhesion.">Synthetic microvascular networks for quantitative analysis of particle adhesion.</a> Biomed Microdevices. 10, 585-595 (2008).</li><li>Rosano, J. M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+physiologically+realistic+in+vitro+model+of+microvascular+networks.">A physiologically realistic in vitro model of microvascular networks.</a> Biomed Microdevices. 11, 1051-1057 (2009).</li><li>Tousi, N., Wang, B., Pant, K., Kiani, M. F., Prabhakarpandian, B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Preferential+adhesion+of+leukocytes+near+bifurcations+is+endothelium+independent.">Preferential adhesion of leukocytes near bifurcations is endothelium independent.</a> Microvasc Res. 80, 384-388 (2010).</li><li>Prabhakarpandian, B., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Bifurcations:+focal+points+of+particle+adhesion+in+microvascular+networks.">Bifurcations: focal points of particle adhesion in microvascular networks.</a> Microcirculation. 18, 380-389 (2011).</li></ol>

Publication fee&#160;for this article sponsored by&#160;CFD Research Corporation.

Parallel plate flow chambers, while providing significant insights into cell-cell and cell-particle interactions, suffer from several limitations such as high consumption of reagents and the need for multiple experimental runs to generate a shear adhesion map. The use of SynVivo-Synthetic Microvascular Networks (SynVivo-SMNs) enables the generation of a shear adhesion map from a single experiment in conditions mimicking in vivo conditions. In addition, significant savings (&#62;95%) in reagents is also obtained....

Current assays to study to cell-cell and particle-cell interactions typically involve static well plate format in which particles or cells are incubated on protein matrices or adherent cells. At the end of the specified incubation time, the numbers of adherent particles or cells are quantified using microscopy1. Even though these assays provide significant insight into the biochemical processes behind these interactions, a key limitation is the lack of physiological fluid flow (typical of microcirculation) and its impact on particle adhesion.
To overcome this limitation, in vitro flow chambers have been developed in recent years. A common element of these flow chambers is a transparent apparatus perfused at low Reynolds numbers to match wall shear rates observed in blood vessels in vivo2. The vessel wall is modeled by either coating of biomolecules or growth of cells on one surface of the flow chamber3. Particles4-7 or cells8-16 are then flowed in at desired range of flow rates to quantify the number of adhering particles under various shear rates.
However, the use of parallel plate flow chambers to study and validate the biochemical phenomena is rather expensive and time consuming. This is mainly due to the fact that multiple experiments need to be conducted for generating a map of the fluidic shear vs. the number of particles/cells adhered. In addition, plate flow chambers require large volumes of reagents due to their large size (height &#62; 250 &#181;m and width &#62; 1 mm). Finally, these devices do not accurately model geometrical features (e.g., bifurcations) and flow conditions (e.g., converging vs. diverging flows) that are present in vivo.
Recent advances in lithography based microfabrication17-19 have accelerated the field of lab-on-a-chip devices20-21. These devices have been instrumental in developing a miniaturized version of the parallel plate flow chamber with dimensions in the micrometer regime. The reduction in dimension also yields significant benefits in terms of volumes of reagents, cells or particle required for experiments. However, a key limitation of the currently available devices is the use of linear channels to model microvessels, which does not mimic the complex microvasculature observed in vivo.
We have recently developed a novel methodology for recreating microvascular networks onto disposable plastic substrates resulting in synthetic representation of the in vivo conditions. These devices termed SynVivo-Synthetic Microvascular Networks (SMN) are developed using PDMS based soft-lithography process. SynVivo-SMN devices can be used to obtain shear adhesion map of cell/particle adhesion22, study targeted drug delivery23 and have been validated against in vivo data24-25. In this paper, we present a protocol that enables generation of the shear adhesion map from a single experiment in volumes as small as 1-5 &#181;l thereby resulting in significant savings of resources and time.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="638">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>SynVivo-SMN</td>
			<td>CFD Research</td>
			<td>SMN-001</td>
			<td>Exclusive at CFDRC</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>CFD-ACE+</td>
			<td>ESI Inc.</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Avidin</td>
			<td>Invitrogen</td>
			<td>43-4401</td>
			<td>Any avidin source will work for this assay</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Biotinylated Particles</td>
			<td>Polysciences</td>
			<td>24173-1</td>
			<td>Any source of biotinylated particles will work for the assay</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tygon Tubing</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>63018-044</td>
			<td>Size is typical for use with SynVivo-SMN</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NIKON Elements</td>
			<td>NIKON Instruments</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>Any other imaging software can be used</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

generation of shear adhesion map using synvivo synthetic microvascular networks

Cell/particle adhesion assays are critical to understanding the biochemical interactions involved in disease pathophysiology and have important applications in the quest for the development of novel therapeutics. Assays using static conditions fail to capture the dependence of adhesion on shear, limiting their correlation with in vivo environment. Parallel plate flow chambers that quantify adhesion under physiological fluid flow need multiple experiments for the generation of a shear adhesion map. In addition, they do not represent the in vivo scale and morphology and require large volumes (~ml) of reagents for experiments. In this study, we demonstrate the generation of shear adhesion map from a single experiment using a microvascular network based microfluidic device, SynVivo-SMN. This device recreates the complex in vivo vasculature including geometric scale, morphological elements, flow features and cellular interactions in an in vitro format, thereby providing a biologically realistic environment for basic and applied research in cellular behavior, drug delivery, and drug discovery. The assay was demonstrated by studying the interaction of the 2 &#181;m biotin-coated particles with avidin-coated surfaces of the microchip. The entire range of shear observed in the microvasculature is obtained in a single assay enabling adhesion vs. shear map for the particles under physiological conditions.

Figure 1A shows a schematic and a bright field image of SynVivo-SMN device. Figure 1B shows the SynVivo-SMN device mounted on a glass slide. Figure 1C shows the device with tubing following priming with water in a vacuum desiccator.
Figure 2A shows an image of the experimental-set up. Figure 2B shows a typical avidin-coated SynVivo-SMN device following binding of 2 &#181;m biotinylated particles. Note that par...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Generation of Shear Adhesion Map Using SynVivo Synthetic Microvascular Networks at JoVE.com

Generation of Shear Adhesion Map Using SynVivo Synthetic Microvascular Networks

Flow chambers used in adhesion experiments typically consist of linear flow paths and require multiple experiments at different flow rates to generate a shear adhesion map. SynVivo-SMN enables the generation of shear adhesion map using a single experiment utilizing microliter volumes resulting in significant savings in time and consumables.

Cell/particle adhesion assays are critical to understanding the biochemical interactions involved in disease pathophysiology and have important ...

generation-shear-adhesion-map-using-synvivo-synthetic-microvascular

Research

JoVE Journal

Bioengineering

8.8K Görüntüleme.  CFD Research Corporation. Flow chambers used in adhesion experiments typically consist of linear flow paths and require multiple experiments at different flow rates to generate a shear adhesion map. SynVivo-SMN enables the generation of shear adhesion map using a single experiment utilizing microliter volumes resulting in significant savings in time and consumables. 

Video: Generation of Shear Adhesion Map Using SynVivo Synthetic Microvascular Networks

Plasma Lithography Surface Patterning for Creation of Cell Networks

Systematic manipulation of a cell microenvironment with micro- and nanoscale resolution is often required for deciphering various cellular and molecular phenomena. To address this requirement, we have developed a plasma lithography technique to manipulate the cellular microenvironment by creating a patterned surface with feature sizes ranging from 100 nm to millimeters. The goal of this technique is to be able to study, in a controlled way, the behaviors of individual cells as well as groups of cells and their interactions.
This plasma lithography method is based on selective modification of the surface chemistry on a substrate by means of shielding the contact of low-temperature plasma with a physical mold. This selective shielding leaves a chemical pattern which can guide cell attachment and movement. This pattern, or surface template, can then be used to create networks of cells whose structure can mimic that found in nature and produces a controllable environment for experimental investigations. The technique is well suited to studying biological phenomenon as it produces stable surface patterns on transparent polymeric substrates in a biocompatible manner. The surface patterns last for weeks to months and can thus guide interaction with cells for long time periods which facilitates the study of long-term cellular processes, such as differentiation and adaption. The modification to the surface is primarily chemical in nature and thus does not introduce topographical or physical interference for interpretation of results. It also does not involve any harsh or toxic substances to achieve patterning and is compatible for tissue culture. Furthermore, it can be applied to modify various types of polymeric substrates, which due to the ability to tune their properties are ideal for and are widely used in biological applications. The resolution achievable is also beneficial, as isolation of specific processes such as migration, adhesion, or binding allows for discrete, clear observations at the single to multicell level.
This method has been employed to form diverse networks of different cell types for investigations involving migration, signaling, tissue formation, and the behavior and interactions of neurons arraigned in a network.

A versatile plasma lithography technique has been developed to generate stable surface patterns for guiding cellular attachment. This technique can be applied to create cell networks including those that mimic natural tissues and has been used for studying several, distinct cell types.

Systematic manipulation of a cell microenvironment with micro- and nanoscale resolution is often required for deciphering various cellular and molecular ...

Endothelialized Microfluidics for Studying Microvascular Interactions in Hematologic Diseases

Advances in microfabrication techniques have enabled the production of inexpensive and reproducible microfluidic systems for conducting biological and biochemical experiments at the micro- and nanoscales 1,2. In addition, microfluidics have also been specifically used to quantitatively analyze hematologic and microvascular processes, because of their ability to easily control the dynamic fluidic environment and biological conditions3-6. As such, researchers have more recently used microfluidic systems to study blood cell deformability, blood cell aggregation, microvascular blood flow, and blood cell-endothelial cell interactions6-13.However, these microfluidic systems either did not include cultured endothelial cells or were larger than the sizescale relevant to microvascular pathologic processes. A microfluidic platform with cultured endothelial cells that accurately recapitulates the cellular, physical, and hemodynamic environment of the microcirculation is needed to further our understanding of the underlying biophysical pathophysiology of hematologic diseases that involve the microvasculature.
Here, we report a method to create an "endothelialized" in vitro model of the microvasculature, using a simple, single mask microfabrication process in conjunction with standard endothelial cell culture techniques, to study pathologic biophysical microvascular interactions that occur in hematologic disease. This "microvasculature-on-a-chip" provides the researcher with a robust assay that tightly controls biological as well as biophysical conditions and is operated using a standard syringe pump and brightfield/fluorescence microscopy. Parameters such as microcirculatory hemodynamic conditions, endothelial cell type, blood cell type(s) and concentration(s), drug/inhibitory concentration etc., can all be easily controlled. As such, our microsystem provides a method to quantitatively investigate disease processes in which microvascular flow is impaired due to alterations in cell adhesion, aggregation, and deformability, a capability unavailable with existing assays.

A method to culture an endothelial cell monolayer throughout the entire inner 3D surface of a microfluidic device with microvascular-sized channels (&lt;30 &mu;m) is described. This in vitro microvasculature model enables the study of biophysical interactions between blood cells, endothelial cells, and soluble factors in hematologic diseases.

Advances in  microfabrication techniques have enabled the production of inexpensive and  reproducible microfluidic systems for conducting biological and ...

Induction of Adhesion-dependent Signals Using Low-intensity Ultrasound

In multicellular organisms, cell behavior is dictated by interactions with the extracellular matrix. Consequences of matrix-engagement range from regulation of cell migration and proliferation, to secretion and even differentiation. The signals underlying each of these complex processes arise from the molecular interactions of extracellular matrix receptors on the surface of the cell. Integrins are the prototypic receptors and provide a mechanical link between extracellular matrix and the cytoskeleton, as well as initiating some of the adhesion-dependent signaling cascades. However, it is becoming increasingly apparent that additional transmembrane receptors function alongside the integrins to regulate both the integrin itself and signals downstream. The most elegant of these examples is the transmembrane proteoglycan, syndecan-4, which cooperates with &alpha;5&beta;1-integrin during adhesion to fibronectin. In vivo models demonstrate the importance of syndecan-4 signaling, as syndecan-4-knockout mice exhibit healing retardation due to inefficient fibroblast migration1,2. In wild-type animals, migration of fibroblasts toward a wound is triggered by the appearance of fibronectin that leaks from damaged capillaries and is deposited by macrophages in injured tissue. Therefore there is great interest in discovering strategies that enhance fibronectin-dependent signaling and could accelerate repair processes.
The integrin-mediated and syndecan-4-mediated components of fibronectin-dependent signaling can be separated by stimulating cells with recombinant fibronectin fragments. Although integrin engagement is essential for cell adhesion, certain fibronectin-dependent signals are regulated by syndecan-4. Syndecan-4 activates the Rac1 protrusive signal3, causes integrin redistribution1, triggers recruitment of cytoskeletal molecules, such as vinculin, to focal adhesions4, and thereby induces directional migration3. We have looked for alternative strategies for activating such signals and found that low-intensity pulsed ultrasound (LIPUS) can mimic the effects of syndecan-4 engagement5. In this protocol we describe the method by which 30 mW/cm2, 1.5 MHz ultrasound, pulsed at 1 kHz (Fig. 1) can be applied to fibroblasts in culture (Fig. 2) to induce Rac1 activation and focal adhesion formation. Ultrasound stimulation is applied for a maximum of 20 minutes, as this combination of parameters has been found to be most efficacious for acceleration of clinical fracture repair6. The method uses recombinant fibronectin fragments to engage &alpha;5&beta;1-integrin, without engagement of syndecan-4, and requires inhibition of protein synthesis by cycloheximide to block deposition of additional matrix by the fibroblasts., The positive effect of ultrasound on repair mechanisms is well documented7,8, and by understanding the molecular effect of ultrasound in culture we should be able to refine the therapeutic technique to improve clinical outcomes.

This protocol describes the stimulation of cultured fibroblasts with low-intensity pulsed ultrasound, which drives focal adhesion formation and Rac1 activation by mimicking engagement of the transmembrane matrix receptor, syndecan-4. This approach allows investigation of a successful clinical technique at the cellular level, thereby providing opportunities for refinement of the therapy.

In multicellular organisms, cell behavior is dictated by interactions with the extracellular matrix. Consequences of matrix-engagement range from ...

Using Cell-substrate Impedance and Live Cell Imaging to Measure Real-time Changes in Cellular Adhesion and De-adhesion Induced by Matrix Modification

Cell-matrix adhesion plays a key role in controlling cell morphology and signaling. Stimuli that disrupt cell-matrix adhesion (e.g., myeloperoxidase and other matrix-modifying oxidants/enzymes released during inflammation) are implicated in triggering pathological changes in cellular function, phenotype and viability in a number of diseases. Here, we describe how cell-substrate impedance and live cell imaging approaches can be readily employed to accurately quantify real-time changes in cell adhesion and de-adhesion induced by matrix modification (using endothelial cells and myeloperoxidase as a pathophysiological matrix-modifying stimulus) with high temporal resolution and in a non-invasive manner. The xCELLigence cell-substrate impedance system continuously quantifies the area of cell-matrix adhesion by measuring the electrical impedance at the cell-substrate interface in cells grown on gold microelectrode arrays. Image analysis of time-lapse differential interference contrast movies quantifies changes in the projected area of individual cells over time, representing changes in the area of cell-matrix contact. Both techniques accurately quantify rapid changes to cellular adhesion and de-adhesion processes. Cell-substrate impedance on microelectrode biosensor arrays provides a platform for robust, high-throughput measurements. Live cell imaging analyses provide additional detail regarding the nature and dynamics of the morphological changes quantified by cell-substrate impedance measurements. These complementary approaches provide valuable new insights into how myeloperoxidase-catalyzed oxidative modification of subcellular extracellular matrix components triggers rapid changes in cell adhesion, morphology and signaling in endothelial cells. These approaches are also applicable for studying cellular adhesion dynamics in response to other matrix-modifying stimuli and in related adherent cells (e.g., epithelial cells).

Here, we present a protocol to continuously quantify cell adhesion and de-adhesion processes with high temporal resolution in a non-invasive manner by cell-substrate impedance and live cell imaging analyses. These approaches reveal the dynamics of cell adhesion/de-adhesion processes triggered by matrix modification and their temporal relationship to adhesion-dependent signaling events.

Cell-matrix adhesion plays a key role in controlling cell morphology and signaling. Stimuli that disrupt cell-matrix adhesion (e.g., myeloperoxidase and ...

Using Synthetic Biology to Engineer Living Cells That Interface with Programmable Materials

We have developed an abiotic-biotic interface that allows engineered cells to control the material properties of a functionalized surface. This system is made by creating two modules: a synthetically engineered strain of E. coli cells and a functionalized material interface. Within this paper, we detail a protocol for genetically engineering selected behaviors within a strain of E. coli using molecular cloning strategies. Once developed, this strain produces elevated levels of biotin when exposed to a chemical inducer. Additionally, we detail protocols for creating two different functionalized surfaces, each of which is able to respond to cell-synthesized biotin. Taken together, we present a methodology for creating a linked, abiotic-biotic system that allows engineered cells to control material composition and assembly on nonliving substrates.

This paper presents a series of protocols for developing engineered cells and functionalized surfaces that enable synthetically engineered E. coli to control and manipulate programmable material surfaces.

We have developed an abiotic-biotic interface that allows engineered cells to control the material properties of a functionalized surface. This system is ...

Gene Expression Analysis of Endothelial Cells Exposed to Shear Stress Using Multiple Parallel-plate Flow Chambers

We describe a workflow for the analysis of gene expression from endothelial cells subject to a steady laminar flow using multiple monitored parallel-plate flow chambers. Endothelial cells form the inner cellular lining of blood vessels and are chronically exposed to the frictional force of blood flow called shear stress. Under physiological conditions, endothelial cells function in the presence of various shear stress conditions. Thus, the application of shear stress conditions in in vitro models can provide greater insight into endothelial responses in vivo. The parallel-plate flow chamber previously published by Lane et al.9 is adapted to study endothelial gene regulation in the presence and absence of steady (non-pulsatile) laminar flow. Key adaptations in the set-up for laminar flow as presented here include a large, dedicated environment to house concurrent flow circuits, the monitoring of flow rates in real-time, and the inclusion of an exogenous reference RNA for the normalization of quantitative real-time PCR data. To assess multiple treatments/conditions with the application of shear stress, multiple flow circuits and pumps are used simultaneously within the same heated and humidified incubator. The flow rate of each flow circuit is measured continuously in real-time to standardize shear stress conditions throughout the experiments. Because these experiments have multiple conditions, we also use an exogenous reference RNA that is spiked-in at the time of RNA extraction for the normalization of RNA extraction and first-strand cDNA synthesis efficiencies. These steps minimize the variability between samples. This strategy is employed in our pipeline for the gene expression analysis with shear stress experiments using the parallel-plate flow chamber, but parts of this strategy, such as the exogenous reference RNA spike-in, can easily and cost-effectively be used for other applications.

Here, a workflow for the culture and gene expression analysis of endothelial cells under fluid shear stress is presented. Included is a physical arrangement for simultaneously housing and monitoring multiple flow chambers in a controlled environment and the use of an exogenous reference RNA for quantitative PCR.

We describe a workflow for the analysis of gene expression from endothelial cells subject to a steady laminar flow using multiple monitored parallel-plate ...

Live Cell Analysis of Shear Stress on Pseudomonas aeruginosa Using an Automated Higher-Throughput Microfluidic System

A higher-throughput microfluidic in vitro bioreactor coupled with fluorescence microscopy has been used to study bacterial biofilm growth and morphology, including Pseudomonas aeruginosa (P. aeruginosa). Here, we will describe how the system can be used to study the growth kinetics and the morphological properties such as the surface roughness and textural entropy of P. aeruginosa strain PA01 that expresses an enhanced green fluorescent protein (PA01-EGFP). A detailed protocol will describe how to grow and seed PA01-EGFP cultures, how to set up the microscope and autorun, and conduct the image analysis to determine growth rate and morphological properties using a variety of shear forces that are controlled by the microfluidic device. This article will provide a detailed description of a technique to improve the study of PA01-EGFP biofilms which eventually can be applied towards other strains of bacteria, fungi, or algae biofilms using the microfluidic platform.

Live Cell Analysis of Shear Stress on Pseudomonas aeruginosa Using an Automated Higher-Throughput Microfluidic System

Here, we describe the use of a higher-throughput microfluidic bioreactor coupled with a fluorescent microscope for the analysis of shear stress effects on Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilms expressing green fluorescent proteins, including instrument set up, the determination of biofilm coverage, growth rate, and morphological properties.

A higher-throughput microfluidic in vitro bioreactor coupled with fluorescence microscopy has been used to study bacterial biofilm growth and morphology, ...

Generation of Transgenic Rats using a Lentiviral Vector Approach

Transgenic animal models are fundamentally important for modern biomedical research. The incorporation of foreign genes into early mouse or rat embryos is an invaluable tool for gene function analysis in living organisms. The standard transgenesis method is based on microinjecting foreign DNA fragments into a pronucleus of a fertilized oocyte. This technique is widely used in mice but remains relatively inefficient and technically demanding in other animal species. The transgene can also be introduced into one-cell-stage embryos via lentiviral infection, providing an effective alternative to standard pronuclear injections, especially in species or strains with a more challenging embryo structure. In this approach, a suspension that contains lentiviral vectors is injected into the perivitelline space of a fertilized rat embryo, which is technically less demanding and has a higher success rate. Lentiviral vectors were shown to efficiently incorporate the transgene into the genome to determine the generation of stable transgenic lines. Despite some limitations (e.g., Biosafety Level 2 requirements, DNA fragment size limits), lentiviral transgenesis is a rapid and efficient transgenesis method. Additionally, using female rats that are mated with a fertile male strain with a different dominant fur color is presented as an alternative to generate pseudopregnant foster mothers.

This article aims to provide the methodology for lentiviral transgenesis in rat embryos using multiple injections of a virus suspension into the zygote perivitelline space. Female rats that are mated with a fertile male strain with a different dominant fur color is used to generate pseudopregnant foster mothers.

Transgenic animal models are fundamentally important for modern biomedical research. The incorporation of foreign genes into early mouse or rat embryos is ...

Preparing Protein Producing Synthetic Cells using Cell Free Bacterial Extracts, Liposomes and Emulsion Transfer

The bottom-up assembly approach for construction of synthetic cells is an effective tool for isolating and investigating cellular processes in a cell mimicking environment. Furthermore, the development of cell-free expression systems has demonstrated the ability to reconstitute the protein production, transcription and translation processes (DNA&#8594;RNA&#8594;protein) in a controlled manner, harnessing synthetic biology. Here we describe a protocol for preparing a cell-free expression system, including the production of a potent bacterial lysate and encapsulating this lysate inside cholesterol-rich lipid-based giant unilamellar vesicles (GUVs) (i.e., stable liposomes), to form synthetic cells. The protocol describes the methods for preparing the components of the synthetic cells including the production of active bacterial lysates, followed by a detailed step-by-step preparation of the synthetic cells based on a water-in-oil emulsion transfer method. These facilitate the production of millions of synthetic cells in a simple and affordable manner with a high versatility for producing different types of proteins. The obtained synthetic cells can be used to investigate protein/RNA production and activity in an isolated environment, in directed evolution, and also as a controlled drug delivery platform for on-demand production of therapeutic proteins inside the body.

This protocol describes the method, materials, equipment and steps for bottom-up preparation of RNA and protein producing synthetic cells. The inner aqueous compartment of the synthetic cells contained the S30 bacterial lysate encapsulated within a lipid bilayer (i.e., stable liposomes), using a water-in-oil emulsion transfer method.

The bottom-up assembly approach for construction of synthetic cells is an effective tool for isolating and investigating cellular processes in a cell ...

Fabricating Multi-Component Lipid Nanotube Networks Using the Gliding Kinesin Motility Assay

Lipid nanotube (LNT) networks represent an in vitro model system for studying molecular transport and lipid biophysics with relevance to the ubiquitous lipid tubules found in eukaryotic cells. However, in vivo LNTs are highly non-equilibrium structures that require chemical energy and molecular motors to be assembled, maintained, and reorganized. Furthermore, the composition of in vivo LNTs is complex, comprising of multiple different lipid species. Typical methods to extrude LNTs are both time- and labor-intensive, and they require optical tweezers, microbeads, and micropipettes to forcibly pull nanotubes from giant lipid vesicles. Presented here is a protocol for the gliding motility assay (GMA), in which large scale LNT networks are rapidly generated from giant unilamellar vesicles (GUVs) using kinesin-powered microtubule motility. Using this method, LNT networks are formed from a wide array of lipid formulations that mimic the complexity of biological LNTs, making them increasingly useful for in vitro studies of lipid biophysics and membrane-associated transport. Additionally, this method is capable of reliably producing LNT networks in a short time (&#60;30 min) using commonly used laboratory equipment. LNT network characteristics such as length, width, and lipid partitioning are also tunable by altering the lipid composition of the GUVs used for fabricating the networks.

This protocol describes a process for fabricating lipid nanotube networks using gliding kinesin motility in conjunction with giant unilamellar lipid vesicles.

Lipid nanotube (LNT) networks represent an in vitro model system for studying molecular transport and lipid biophysics with relevance to the ubiquitous ...