We thank Drs. Xiaofang Wang and Katharina Hopp for their invaluable help with the animal models. This work has been supported by grants from the National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health (DK090728, DK058816).

Before starting any procedures with live animals, experimental protocols should be approved by the institutional animal care and use committee (IACUC).
1. Scanner Configuration
<ol>
	<li>Before starting, make sure the heater is in OFF position.</li>
	<li>Select the mini imaging gradient and 38 mm RF coil and mini imaging holder.</li>
	<li>In the central bore of the holder install the variable temperature assembly.</li>
</ol>
2. Animal Preparation
<ol>
	<li>For MRI experiments, achieve optimal anesthesia using vaporized isoflurane. For induction of anesthesia, place animal in an induction chamber lined with an absorbent tissue. Adjust the flowmeter of the isoflurane vaporizer to 2.0-2.5 L/min, and the isoflurane to 3% in oxygen.</li>
	<li>Remove any metal tag or other metallic object at this stage. Apply vet ointment on animal&#8217;s eyes to prevent dryness while under anesthesia.</li>
	<li>Once the animal has reached the surgical plane of anesthesia (i.e., loss of withdrawal reflex to toe pinch), place the animal on a holder with its nose inserted into a nose cone. Set the anesthesia air flow in the probe to 2.0-2.5 ml/min and the isoflurane concentration to 1.5-2.0% in oxygen. Anesthesia will be delivered through the nose cone during the procedure. Periodically adjust isoflurane concentration depending on animal&#8217;s age and weight to maintain a respiration rate of ~40 bpm.</li>
	<li>Use animal holders to secure the animal in place and prevent motion during the MRI experiment. Vary the type of animal holder depending on the body region to be scanned. 
	Note: Customized holders from laboratory plastics (polypropylene, Teflon, polystyrene, polycarbonate) can be made to accommodate specific experiment and to fit the animal size (from newborn mouse to 160 g rat).</li>
	<li>Place the rectal thermometer in the animal to monitor animal&#8217;s body temperature. During the experiment, keep the animal at 35-37 &#176;C, using a stream of warm air. Adjust air temperature (30-38 &#176;C) and flow (1,200-2,000 L/hr) based on animal&#8217;s body temperature feedback.</li>
	<li>Attach a balloon respiratory pressure sensor to animal&#8217;s abdomen to monitor respiration rate.</li>
	<li>Secure the animal at the center of the RF coil and carefully place the RF coil with animal into MRI scanner.</li>
</ol>
3. MRI Experiment
<ol>
	<li>Tune and match the RF coil before starting the experiments to minimize RF power used and to maximize signal-to-noise ratio. To start the matching/tuning:
	<ol>
		<li>Open the spectrometer control tool by clicking the tools icon.</li>
		<li>In the spectrometer control tool click Acquisition&#160;&#8594; Wobble. An Acq/Reco window will open displaying the wobble curve.</li>
		<li>Alternatively adjust the tuning and matching capacitors (using the tuning and matching rods) in small steps until the reflected RF power is minimized. The goal is to see a curve with a minimum at the vertical axis positioned at zero on the horizontal axis.</li>
		<li>When the calibration of the coil has been successfully achieved, hit the Stop button in the Acq/Reco window.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Acquire scout images in the three orthogonal planes to create axial, coronal and sagittal images. Use a fast image sequence such as Intra Gate Fast Low Angle Shot (IG-FLASH) to acquire the scout images12. Use the scout images to set the proper geometry for the actual imaging.</li>
	<li>Depending on the specific research aims, select proper image sequence and parameters and start the scan with a traffic light. This will calibrate RF channel, shim the magnet, set carrier frequency on-resonance for water and adjust receiver gain, all automatically.
	<ol>
		<li>For anatomic studies and T2 weighted images, acquire in 2D multi slice or 3D mode. To shorten the experiment time for a given spatial resolution, keep the field-of-view (FOV) as small as possible but large enough to avoid wrap-around artifacts (2.56-3.2 cm).</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Keep the cycle of selected sequence slightly shorter than the animal respiration cycle by proper selection of repetition time (TR) and/or number of slices. This ensures that the data are collected during animals&#39; quiet period.
	<ol>
		<li>For example, for abdominal images, keep animal&#8217;s respiratory rate at ~30 bpm; that is about 2,000 msec per breath. Use a Turbo Rapid Acquisition with Relaxation Enhancement (RARE) sequence and acquire 11-19 coronal slices, with TR/TE 1500/9 msec, RARE factor 8 and (matrix 256 x 256, FOV 2.56 x 2.56 cm, slice thickness 0.75 mm). 
		Note: By adjusting the TR to 1,500 msec, and keeping the animal&#8217;s respiratory rate ~30 bpm (2,000 msec per breath), we ensure that the data are collected during animals&#39; quiet period.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>After all image acquisition has been completed, place the scanned animal on heated pad and monitor until ambulatory. After recovery, return the animal to the cage and monitored at least for 1 hr before returning to the animal facility.</li>
</ol>

<ol>
	<li>Torres, V. E., Harris, P. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Autosomal+dominant+polycystic+kidney+disease:+the+last+3+years.">Autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease: the last 3 years.</a> Kidney Int. 76, 149-168 (2009).</li><li>Chapman, A. B., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Kidney+volume+and+functional+outcomes+in+autosomal+dominant+polycystic+kidney+disease.">Kidney volume and functional outcomes in autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease.</a> Clinical journal of the American Society of Nephrology : CJASN. 7, 479-486 (2012).</li><li>Torres, V. E., Harris, P. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Polycystic+kidney+disease:+genes,+proteins,+animal+models,+disease+mechanisms+and+therapeutic+opportunities.">Polycystic kidney disease: genes, proteins, animal models, disease mechanisms and therapeutic opportunities.</a> J Intern Med. 261, 17-31 (2007).</li><li>Hateboer, N., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Comparison+of+phenotypes+of+polycystic+kidney+disease+types+1+and+2+European+PKD1-PKD2+Study+Group.">Comparison of phenotypes of polycystic kidney disease types 1 and 2 European PKD1-PKD2 Study Group.</a> Lancet. 353, 103-107 (1999).</li><li>Rossetti, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Association+of+mutation+position+in+polycystic+kidney+disease+1+(PKD1)+gene+and+development+of+a+vascular+phenotype.">Association of mutation position in polycystic kidney disease 1 (PKD1) gene and development of a vascular phenotype.</a> Lancet. 361, 2196-2201 (2003).</li><li>Chapman, A. B., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Renal+structure+in+early+autosomal-dominant+polycystic+kidney+disease+(ADPKD):+The+Consortium+for+Radiologic+Imaging+Studies+of+Polycystic+Kidney+Disease+(CRISP)+cohort.">Renal structure in early autosomal-dominant polycystic kidney disease (ADPKD): The Consortium for Radiologic Imaging Studies of Polycystic Kidney Disease (CRISP) cohort.</a> Kidney international. 64, 1035-1045 (2003).</li><li>Grantham, J. J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Volume+progression+in+polycystic+kidney+disease.">Volume progression in polycystic kidney disease.</a> N Engl J Med. 354, 2122-2130 (2006).</li><li>Schrier, R. W., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Blood+Pressure+in+Early+Autosomal+Dominant+Polycystic+Kidney+Disease.">Blood Pressure in Early Autosomal Dominant Polycystic Kidney Disease.</a> The New England journal of medicine. , (2014).</li><li>Torres, V. E., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Angiotensin+Blockade+in+Late+Autosomal+Dominant+Polycystic+Kidney+Disease.">Angiotensin Blockade in Late Autosomal Dominant Polycystic Kidney Disease.</a> The New England journal of medicine. , (2014).</li><li>Wilson, P. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mouse+models+of+polycystic+kidney+disease.">Mouse models of polycystic kidney disease.</a> Curr Top Dev Biol. 84, 311-350 (2008).</li><li>Happe, H., Peters, D. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Translational+research+in+ADPKD:+lessons+from+animal+models.">Translational research in ADPKD: lessons from animal models.</a> Nature reviews. Nephrology. , (2014).</li><li>Frahm, J., Haase, A., Matthaei, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Rapid+NMR+imaging+of+dynamic+processes+using+the+FLASH+technique.">Rapid NMR imaging of dynamic processes using the FLASH technique.</a> Magnetic resonance in medicine : official journal of the Society of Magnetic Resonance in Medicine / Society of Magnetic Resonance in Medicine. 3, 321-327 (1986).</li><li>Bae, K. T., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Magnetic+resonance+imaging+evaluation+of+hepatic+cysts+in+early+autosomal-dominant+polycystic+kidney+disease:+the+Consortium+for+Radiologic+Imaging+Studies+of+Polycystic+Kidney+Disease+cohort.">Magnetic resonance imaging evaluation of hepatic cysts in early autosomal-dominant polycystic kidney disease: the Consortium for Radiologic Imaging Studies of Polycystic Kidney Disease cohort.</a> Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 1, 64-69 (2006).</li><li>Hossack, K. F., Leddy, C. L., Johnson, A. M., Schrier, R. W., Gabow, P. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Echocardiographic+findings+in+autosomal+dominant+polycystic+kidney+disease.">Echocardiographic findings in autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease.</a> N Engl J Med. 319, 907-912 (1988).</li><li>Lumiaho, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mitral+valve+prolapse+and+mitral+regurgitation+are+common+in+patients+with+polycystic+kidney+disease+type+1.">Mitral valve prolapse and mitral regurgitation are common in patients with polycystic kidney disease type 1.</a> American journal of kidney diseases : the official journal of the National Kidney Foundation. 38, 1208-1216 (2001).</li><li>Vallee, J. P., Ivancevic, M. K., Nguyen, D., Morel, D. R., Jaconi, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Current+status+of+cardiac+MRI+in+small+animals.">Current status of cardiac MRI in small animals.</a> Magma. 17, 149-156 (2004).</li><li>Epstein, F. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=MR+in+mouse+models+of+cardiac+disease.">MR in mouse models of cardiac disease.</a> NMR Biomed. 20, 238-255 (2007).</li><li>Bloomgarden, D. C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Global+cardiac+function+using+fast+breath-hold+MRI:+validation+of+new+acquisition+and+analysis+techniques.">Global cardiac function using fast breath-hold MRI: validation of new acquisition and analysis techniques.</a> Magnetic resonance in medicine : official journal of the Society of Magnetic Resonance in Medicine / Society of Magnetic Resonance in Medicine. 37, 683-692 (1997).</li><li>Larson, A. C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Self-gated+cardiac+cine+MRI.">Self-gated cardiac cine MRI.</a> Magnetic resonance in medicine : official journal of the Society of Magnetic Resonance in Medicine / Society of Magnetic Resonance in Medicine. 51, 93-102 (2004).</li><li>Smith, J. C., Corbin, T. J., McCabe, J. G., Bolon, B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Isoflurane+with+morphine+is+a+suitable+anaesthetic+regimen+for+embryo+transfer+in+the+production+of+transgenic+rats.">Isoflurane with morphine is a suitable anaesthetic regimen for embryo transfer in the production of transgenic rats.</a> Laboratory animals. 38, 38-43 (2004).</li><li>Ahrens, E. T., Srinivas, M., Capuano, S., Simhan, H. N., Schatten, G. P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Magnetic+resonance+imaging+of+embryonic+and+fetal+development+in+model+systems.">Magnetic resonance imaging of embryonic and fetal development in model systems.</a> Methods Mol Med. 124, 87-101 (2006).</li><li>Zhou, R., Pickup, S., Glickson, J. D., Scott, C. H., Ferrari, V. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Assessment+of+global+and+regional+myocardial+function+in+the+mouse+using+cine+and+tagged+MRI.">Assessment of global and regional myocardial function in the mouse using cine and tagged MRI.</a> Magnetic resonance in medicine : official journal of the Society of Magnetic Resonance in Medicine / Society of Magnetic Resonance in Medicine. 49, 760-764 (2003).</li><li>Stimpfel, T. M., Gershey, E. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Selecting+anesthetic+agents+for+human+safety+and+animal+recovery+surgery.">Selecting anesthetic agents for human safety and animal recovery surgery.</a> FASEB journal : official publication of the Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology. 5, 2099-2104 (1991).</li></ol>

The authors have nothing to disclose.

This manuscript shows the feasibility of using UHF MRI as a tool for in vivo phenotypical characterization or drug monitoring in rodent models for PKD.
We describe experiments done at 16.4 T with a wide bore Avance III high resolution NMR spectrometer equipped with micro and mini imaging accessories. The spectrometer was driven by the acquisition and processing software TopSpin2.0PV controlled by Paravision 5.1 imaging software. Because the rodent size varies in longitudinal studies, ...

Polycystic Kidney Disease (PKD) includes a group of monogenic disorders characterized by the development of renal cysts. Among them are autosomal-dominant polycystic kidney disease (ADPKD) and autosomal-recessive polycystic kidney disease (ARPKD), which represent the most common types1,2. ADPKD, the most frequent form of hereditary renal cystic diseases, is originated by mutations in the PKD1 or PKD2 genes. It is characterized by late-onset, multiple bilateral renal cysts, accompanied by variable extra-renal cysts, as well as cardiovascular and muscle skeletal abnormalities. ARPKD, most commonly affecting newborns and young children, is caused by mutations in PKHD1 and is characterized by enlarged echogenic kidneys and congenital hepatic fibrosis3.
Importantly, ADPKD is characterized by heterogeneity, both at the gene (genic) and mutation (allelic) levels, which results in substantial phenotypic variability. Mutations in the PKD1 gene are associated with severe clinical presentation (numerous cysts, early diagnosis, hypertension, and hematuria), as well as rapid progression to end-stage renal disease (20 years earlier than patients with PKD2 mutations)4. Severe polycystic liver disease (PLD) and vascular abnormalities can be associated with mutations in both PKD1 and PKD25. The majority of renal complications of ADPKD arise mainly as a consequence of the cyst expansion along with associated inflammation and fibrosis. Cyst development starts in utero and continues through the patient lifetime. Kidneys usually maintain their reniform shape even though they could reach more than 20 times the normal kidney volume. Most of the patients present bilateral distribution of renal cysts, but in some unusual cases, cyst may develop in a unilateral or asymmetric pattern.
A major challenge for nephrologists following patients with ADPKD or implementing therapies is the natural history of the disease. During most of its course, the renal function remains normal and by the time the renal function starts to decline, most of the kidneys have been replaced by cysts. When therapies are implemented at later stages, it is less likely to be successful since the patient may already have reached a point of no return in chronic kidney disease. In contrast, when therapies are started at early stages, it is difficult to identify a response based solely on glomerular filtration rate. As a result, the notion of kidney volume as a marker of disease progression gained attention.
The Consortium for Radiologic Imaging Studies of Polycystic Kidney Disease (CRISP) study has shown that in patients with ADPKD the increase in kidney and cyst volumes directly correlates with renal function deterioration, underscoring the potential of Total Kidney Volume (TKV) as a surrogate marker for disease progression6,7. Consequently, TKV is currently used as primary or secondary endpoint in multiple clinical trials for ADPKD2,8,9.
Multiple murine models including spontaneous mutations and genetically engineered have shed light on the pathogenesis of PKD10,11. Pkd1 or Pkd2 models (mutations in either Pkd1 or Pkd2) have become the most popular ones, as they perfectly mimic human disease. In addition, rodent models with mutations in genes other than Pkd1 or Pkd2 genes have been used as an experimental platform to elucidate signaling pathways related to the disease. In addition, several of these models have been used to test potential therapies. However, a limiting factor in many rodent studies for PKD is often the lack of efficient non-invasive methods to sequentially analyze the anatomical and functional changes in the kidney.
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is the current gold standard imaging technique to follow ADPKD patients, providing excellent soft tissue contrast and anatomic detail, and allowing TKV measurements. Even though MRI is well established for anatomical imaging in larger animals and humans, imaging small rodents in vivo entails additional technical challenges, where the ability to acquire high resolution images may limit its usefulness. With the introduction of Ultra-high field (UHF) MRI (7-16.4 T) and the development of stronger gradients, it is now possible to achieve higher signal-to noise ratios and spatial resolution of MRI images with a diagnostic quality similar to that obtained in humans. Consequently, the use of UHF MRI for in vivo imaging of small rodent models for PKD has become a powerful tool for researchers.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>AVANCEIII-700 (16.4 T)</td>
			<td>Bruker</td>
			<td>BH067206</td>
			<td>Wide-bore two channel multinuclear spectrometer equipped with mini and micro-imaging accessories for in vivo small rodent imaging</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>TopSpin2.0PV&#160;</td>
			<td>Bruker</td>
			<td>H9088TA2</td>
			<td>Spectrometer processing software&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Paravision 5.1&#160;</td>
			<td>Bruker</td>
			<td>T10314L5</td>
			<td>Imaging sofware</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>VTU BVT 3000 digital</td>
			<td>Bruker</td>
			<td>W1101095</td>
			<td>Temperature controller</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

use of ultra-high field mri in small rodent models of polycystic kidney disease for in vivo phenotyping and drug monitoring

Several in vivo pre-clinical studies in Polycystic Kidney Disease (PKD) utilize orthologous rodent models to identify and study the genetic and molecular mechanisms responsible for the disease, and are very convenient for rapid drug screening and testing of promising therapies. A limiting factor in these studies is often the lack of efficient non-invasive methods for sequentially analyzing the anatomical and functional changes in the kidney. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is the current gold standard imaging technique to follow autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease (ADPKD) patients, providing excellent soft tissue contrast and anatomic detail and allowing Total Kidney Volume (TKV) measurements.A major advantage of MRI in rodent models of PKD is the possibility for in vivo imaging allowing for longitudinal studies that use the same animal and therefore reducing the total number of animals required. In this manuscript, we will focus on using Ultra-high field (UHF) MRI to non-invasively acquire in vivo images of rodent models for PKD. The main goal of this work is to introduce the use of MRI as a tool for in vivo phenotypical characterization and drug monitoring in rodent models for PKD.

In this manuscript, we aim to show the usefulness of UHF MRI as a tool for in vivo phenotypical characterization or drug monitoring in rodent models for PKD and other kidney diseases. All of the experiments were part of experimental protocols approved by the IACUC.
In vivo phenotyping of small rodent models for PKD using UHF MRI:
All imaging studies were performed on live animals under isoflurane anesthesia, with a Bruker AVANCEIII-700 (16.4 T) vertic...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Use of Ultra-high Field MRI in Small Rodent Models of Polycystic Kidney Disease for In Vivo Phenotyping and Drug Monitoring at JoVE.com

Use of Ultra-high Field MRI in Small Rodent Models of Polycystic Kidney Disease for In Vivo Phenotyping and Drug Monitoring

The use of ultra-high field MRI as a non-invasive way to obtain phenotypic information of rodent models for polycystic kidney disease and to monitor interventions is described. Compared with the traditional histological approach, MRI images can be acquired in vivo, allowing for longitudinal follow-up.

Use of Ultra-high Field MRI in Small Rodent Models of Polycystic Kidney Disease for In Vivo Phenotyping and Drug Monitoring

Several in vivo pre-clinical studies in Polycystic Kidney Disease (PKD) utilize orthologous rodent models to identify and study the genetic and molecular ...

use-ultra-high-field-mri-small-rodent-models-polycystic-kidney

Research

JoVE Journal

Medicine

11.4K Görüntüleme.  Mayo Clinic. The use of ultra-high field MRI as a non-invasive way to obtain phenotypic information of rodent models for polycystic kidney disease and to monitor interventions is described. Compared with the traditional histological approach, MRI images can be acquired in vivo, allowing for longitudinal follow-up.

Video: Use of Ultra-high Field MRI in Small Rodent Models of Polycystic Kidney Disease for In Vivo Phenotyping and Drug Monitoring

An in vivo Rodent Model of Contraction-induced Injury and Non-invasive Monitoring of Recovery

Muscle strains are one of the most common complaints treated by physicians. A muscle injury is typically diagnosed from the patient history and physical exam alone, however the clinical presentation can vary greatly depending on the extent of injury, the patient's pain tolerance, etc. In patients with muscle injury or muscle disease, assessment of muscle damage is typically limited to clinical signs, such as tenderness, strength, range of motion, and more recently, imaging studies. Biological markers, such as serum creatine kinase levels, are typically elevated with muscle injury, but their levels do not always correlate with the loss of force production. This is even true of histological findings from animals, which provide a "direct measure" of damage, but do not account for all the loss of function. Some have argued that the most comprehensive measure of the overall health of the muscle in contractile force. Because muscle injury is a random event that occurs under a variety of biomechanical conditions, it is difficult to study. Here, we describe an in vivo animal model to measure torque and to produce a reliable muscle injury. We also describe our model for measurement of force from an isolated muscle in situ. Furthermore, we describe our small animal MRI procedure.

An in vivo Rodent Model of Contraction-induced Injury and Non-invasive Monitoring of Recovery

An in vivo animal model of injury is described. The method takes advantage of the subcutaneous position of the fibular nerve. Velocity, timing of muscle activation, and arc of motion are all pre-determined and synchronized using commercial software. Post injury changes are monitored in vivo using MR imaging/spectroscopy.

Muscle strains are one of the most  common complaints treated by physicians. A muscle injury is typically diagnosed from the patient history and  physical ...

The Use of Cystometry in Small Rodents: A Study of Bladder Chemosensation

The lower urinary tract (LUT) functions as a dynamic reservoir that is able to store urine and to efficiently expel it at a convenient time. While storing urine, however, the bladder is exposed for prolonged periods to waste products. By acting as a tight barrier, the epithelial lining of the LUT, the urothelium, avoids re-absorption of harmful substances. Moreover, noxious chemicals stimulate the bladder's nociceptive innervation and initiate voiding contractions that expel the bladder's contents. Interestingly, the bladder's sensitivity to noxious chemicals has been used successfully in clinical practice, by intravesically infusing the TRPV1 agonist capsaicin to treat neurogenic bladder overactivity1. This underscores the advantage of viewing the bladder as a chemosensory organ and prompts for further clinical research. However, ethical issues severely limit the possibilities to perform, in human subjects, the invasive measurements that are necessary to unravel the molecular bases of LUT clinical pharmacology. A way to overcome this limitation is the use of several animal models2. Here we describe the implementation of cystometry in mice and rats, a technique that allows measuring the intravesical pressure in conditions of controlled bladder perfusion.
	After laparotomy, a catheter is implanted in the bladder dome and tunneled subcutaneously to the interscapular region. Then the bladder can be filled at a controlled rate, while the urethra is left free for micturition. During the repetitive cycles of filling and voiding, intravesical pressure can be measured via the implanted catheter. As such, the pressure changes can be quantified and analyzed. Moreover, simultaneous measurement of the voided volume allows distinguishing voiding contractions from non-voiding contractions3.
	Importantly, due to the differences in micturition control between rodents and humans, cystometric measurements in these animals have only limited translational value4. Nevertheless, they are quite instrumental in the study of bladder pathophysiology and pharmacology in experimental pre-clinical settings. Recent research using this technique has revealed the key role of novel molecular players in the mechano- and chemo-sensory properties of the bladder.

Cystometry is an efficient technique to measure bladder function of small animals in vivo. The bladder is continuously infused at rates controlled through an intravesical catheter, whereas the urethra is left free for micturition. This allows for repetitive filling and emptying of the bladder, while intravesical pressure and voided volume are recorded.

	The lower urinary tract (LUT) functions as a  dynamic reservoir that is able to store urine and to efficiently expel it at a  convenient time. While ...

Spectral Karyotyping to Study Chromosome Abnormalities in Humans and Mice with Polycystic Kidney Disease

Conventional method to identify and classify individual chromosomes depends on the unique banding pattern of each chromosome in a specific species being analyzed 1, 2. This classical banding technique, however, is not reliable in identifying complex chromosomal aberrations such as those associated with cancer. To overcome the limitations of the banding technique, Spectral Karyotyping (SKY) is introduced to provide much reliable information on chromosome abnormalities.
SKY is a multicolor fluorescence in-situ hybridization (FISH) technique to detect metaphase chromosomes with spectral microscope 3, 4. SKY has been proven to be a valuable tool for the cytogenetic analysis of a broad range of chromosome abnormalities associated with a large number of genetic diseases and malignancies 5, 6. SKY involves the use of multicolor fluorescently-labelled DNA probes prepared from the degenerate oligonucleotide primers by PCR. Thus, every chromosome has a unique spectral color after in-situ hybridization with probes, which are differentially labelled with a mixture of fluorescent dyes (Rhodamine, Texas Red, Cy5, FITC and Cy5.5). The probes used for SKY consist of up to 55 chromosome specific probes 7-10.
The procedure for SKY involves several steps (Figure 1). SKY requires the availability of cells with high mitotic index from normal or diseased tissue or blood. The chromosomes of a single cell from either a freshly isolated primary cell or a cell line are spread on a glass slide. This chromosome spread is labeled with a different combination of fluorescent dyes specific for each chromosome. For probe detection and image acquisition,the spectral imaging system consists of sagnac interferometer and a CCD camera. This allows measurement of the visible light spectrum emitted from the sample and to acquire a spectral image from individual chromosomes. HiSKY, the software used to analyze the results of the captured images, provides an easy identification of chromosome anomalies. The end result is a metaphase and a karyotype classification image, in which each pair of chromosomes has a distinct color (Figure 2). This allows easy identification of chromosome identities and translocations. For more details, please visit Applied Spectral Imaging website (<a href="http://www.spectral-imaging.com/" target="_blank">http://www.spectral-imaging.com/</a>).
SKY was recently used for an identification of chromosome segregation defects and chromosome abnormalities in humans and mice with Autosomal Dominant Polycystic Kidney Disease (ADPKD), a genetic disease characterized by dysfunction in primary cilia 11-13. Using this technique, we demonstrated the presence of abnormal chromosome segregation and chromosomal defects in ADPKD patients and mouse models 14. Further analyses using SKY not only allowed us to identify chromosomal number and identity, but also to accurately detect very complex chromosomal aberrations such as chromosome deletions and translocations (Figure 2).

Spectral Karyotyping (SKY) is an advanced cytogenetics technique to identify genomic and chromosomal aberrations. This technique takes advantage of chromosome painting probes, which allow classification of all chromosomes. SKY can also identify complex chromosome aberrations and segregation defects in mice and humans with various diseases, including polycystic kidney disease.

Conventional method to identify and classify individual chromosomes depends on the unique banding pattern of each chromosome in a specific species being ...

The Use of Primary Human Fibroblasts for Monitoring Mitochondrial Phenotypes in the Field of Parkinson's Disease

Parkinson's disease (PD) is the second most common movement disorder and affects 1% of people over the age of 60 1. Because ageing is the most important risk factor, cases of PD will increase during the next decades 2. Next to pathological protein folding and impaired protein degradation pathways, alterations of mitochondrial function and morphology were pointed out as further hallmark of neurodegeneration in PD 3-11.
After years of research in murine and human cancer cells as in vitro models to dissect molecular pathways of Parkinsonism, the use of human fibroblasts from patients and appropriate controls as ex vivo models has become a valuable research tool, if potential caveats are considered. Other than immortalized, rather artificial cell models, primary fibroblasts from patients carrying disease-associated mutations apparently reflect important pathological features of the human disease.
Here we delineate the procedure of taking skin biopsies, culturing human fibroblasts and using detailed protocols for essential microscopic techniques to define mitochondrial phenotypes. These were used to investigate different features associated with PD that are relevant to mitochondrial function and dynamics. Ex vivo, mitochondria can be analyzed in terms of their function, morphology, colocalization with lysosomes (the organelles degrading dysfunctional mitochondria) and degradation via the lysosomal pathway. These phenotypes are highly relevant for the identification of early signs of PD and may precede clinical motor symptoms in human disease-gene carriers. Hence, the assays presented here can be utilized as valuable tools to identify pathological features of neurodegeneration and help to define new therapeutic strategies in PD.

The Use of Primary Human Fibroblasts for Monitoring Mitochondrial Phenotypes in the Field of Parkinson&#039;s Disease

Fibroblasts from patients carrying mutations in Parkinson's disease-causing genes represent an easily accessible ex vivo model to study disease-associated phenotypes. Live cell imaging gives the opportunity to study morphological and functional parameters in living cells. Here we describe the preparation of human fibroblasts and subsequent monitoring of mitochondrial phenotypes.

Parkinson's disease (PD) is the second most  common movement disorder and affects 1% of people over the age of 60 1. Because ageing is  the most important ...

Assessment of Cardiac Function and Myocardial Morphology Using Small Animal Look-locker Inversion Recovery (SALLI) MRI in Rats

Small animal magnetic resonance imaging is an important tool to study cardiac function and changes in myocardial tissue. The high heart rates of small animals (200 to 600 beats/min) have previously limited the role of CMR imaging. Small animal Look-Locker inversion recovery (SALLI) is a T1 mapping sequence for small animals to overcome this problem 1. T1 maps provide quantitative information about tissue alterations and contrast agent kinetics. It is also possible to detect diffuse myocardial processes such as interstitial fibrosis or edema 1-6. Furthermore, from a single set of image data, it is possible to examine heart function and myocardial scarring by generating cine and inversion recovery-prepared late gadolinium enhancement-type MR images 1.
	The presented video shows step-by-step the procedures to perform small animal CMR imaging. Here it is presented with a healthy Sprague-Dawley rat, however naturally it can be extended to different cardiac small animal models.

Assessment of Cardiac Function and Myocardial Morphology Using Small Animal Look-locker Inversion Recovery SALLI MRI in Rats

Contrast enhanced cardiac magnetic resonance (CMR) imaging allows comprehensive in vivo assessment of the heart in small animal models of cardiovascular disease. Here we detail the procedures to perform CMR imaging, reconstruction and analysis using Small Animal Lock-Locker Inversion Recovery (SALLI) in rats.

Small animal magnetic resonance  imaging is an important tool to study cardiac function and changes in myocardial  tissue. The high heart rates of small ...

In vivo 19F MRI for Cell Tracking

In vivo 19F MRI allows quantitative cell tracking without the use of ionizing radiation. It is a noninvasive technique that can be applied to humans. Here, we describe a general protocol for cell labeling, imaging, and image processing. The technique is applicable to various cell types and animal models, although here we focus on a typical mouse model for tracking murine immune cells. The most important issues for cell labeling are described, as these are relevant to all models. Similarly, key imaging parameters are listed, although the details will vary depending on the MRI system and the individual setup. Finally, we include an image processing protocol for quantification. Variations for this, and other parts of the protocol, are assessed in the Discussion section. Based on the detailed procedure described here, the user will need to adapt the protocol for each specific cell type, cell label, animal model, and imaging setup. Note that the protocol can also be adapted for human use, as long as clinical restrictions are met.

In vivo 19F MRI for Cell Tracking

We describe a general protocol for in vivo cell tracking using MRI in a mouse model with ex vivo labeled cells. A typical protocol for cell labeling, image acquisition processing and quantification is included.

In vivo 19F MRI allows quantitative cell tracking without the use of ionizing radiation. It is a noninvasive technique that can be applied to humans. ...

MRI and PET in Mouse Models of Myocardial Infarction

Myocardial infarction is one of the leading causes of death in the Western world. The similarity of the mouse heart to the human heart has made it an ideal model for testing novel therapeutic strategies.
In vivo magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) gives excellent views of the heart noninvasively with clear anatomical detail, which can be used for accurate functional assessment. Contrast agents can provide basic measures of tissue viability but these are nonspecific. Positron emission tomography (PET) is a complementary technique that is highly specific for molecular imaging, but lacks the anatomical detail of MRI. Used together, these techniques offer a sensitive, specific and quantitative tool for the assessment of the heart in disease and recovery following treatment.
In this paper we explain how these methods are carried out in mouse models of acute myocardial infarction. The procedures described here were designed for the assessment of putative protective drug treatments. We used MRI to measure systolic function and infarct size with late gadolinium enhancement, and PET with fluorodeoxyglucose (FDG) to assess metabolic function in the infarcted region. The paper focuses on practical aspects such as slice planning, accurate gating, drug delivery, segmentation of images, and multimodal coregistration. The methods presented here achieve good repeatability and accuracy maintaining a high throughput.

We describe how to perform MRI and PET imaging of the mouse heart. The protocol is tailored to assess treatment efficacy in models of myocardial infarction and heart failure.

Myocardial infarction is one of the leading causes of death in the Western world. The similarity of the mouse heart to the human heart has made it an ...

A Possible Zebrafish Model of Polycystic Kidney Disease: Knockdown of wnt5a Causes Cysts in Zebrafish Kidneys

Polycystic kidney disease (PKD) is one of the most common causes of end-stage kidney disease, a devastating disease for which there is no cure. The molecular mechanisms leading to cyst formation in PKD remain somewhat unclear, but many genes are thought to be involved. Wnt5a is a non-canonical glycoprotein that regulates a wide range of developmental processes. Wnt5a works through the planar cell polarity (PCP) pathway that regulates oriented cell division during renal tubular cell elongation. Defects of the PCP pathway have been found to cause kidney cyst formation. Our paper describes a method for developing a zebrafish cystic kidney disease model by knockdown of the wnt5a gene with wnt5a antisense morpholino (MO) oligonucleotides. Tg(wt1b:GFP) transgenic zebrafish were used to visualize kidney structure and kidney cysts following wnt5a knockdown. Two distinct antisense MOs (AUG - and splice-site) were used and both resulted in curly tail down phenotype and cyst formation after wnt5a knockdown. Injection of mouse Wnt5a mRNA, resistant to the MOs due to a difference in primary base pair structure, rescued the abnormal phenotype, demonstrating that the phenotype was not due to &#8220;off-target&#8221; effects of the morpholino. This work supports the validity of using a zebrafish model to study wnt5a function in the kidney.

A Possible Zebrafish Model of Polycystic Kidney Disease: Knockdown of wnt5a Causes Cysts in Zebrafish Kidneys

We describe a method of generating a possible zebrafish model of polycystic kidney disease. We used Tg(wt1b:GFP) fish to visualize kidney structure. Knockdown of wnt5a was by morpholino injection. Pronephric cyst formation after wnt5a knockdown was observed in this GFP transgenic zebrafish.

Polycystic kidney disease (PKD) is one of the most common causes of end-stage kidney disease, a devastating disease for which there is no cure. The ...

Ex Vivo Intestinal Sacs to Assess Mucosal Permeability in Models of Gastrointestinal Disease

The epithelial barrier is the first innate defense of the gastrointestinal tract and selectively regulates transport from the lumen to the underlying tissue compartments, restricting the transport of smaller molecules across the epithelium and almost completely prohibiting epithelial macromolecular transport. This selectivity is determined by the mucous gel layer, which limits the transport of lipophilic molecules and both the apical receptors and tight junctional protein complexes of the epithelium. In vitro cell culture models of the epithelium are convenient, but as a model, they lack the complexity of interactions between the microbiota, mucous-gel, epithelium and immune system. On the other hand, in vivo assessment of intestinal absorption or permeability may be performed, but these assays measure overall gastrointestinal absorption, with no indication of site specificity. Ex vivo permeability assays using &#34;intestinal sacs&#34; are a rapid and sensitive method of measuring either overall intestinal integrity or comparative transport of a specific molecule, with the added advantage of intestinal site specificity. Here we describe the preparation of intestinal sacs for permeability studies and the calculation of the apparent permeability (Papp) of a molecule across the intestinal barrier. This technique may be used as a method of assessing drug absorption, or to examine regional epithelial barrier dysfunction in animal models of gastrointestinal disease.

Ex Vivo Intestinal Sacs to Assess Mucosal Permeability in Models of Gastrointestinal Disease

This protocol describes the use of excised intestinal tissue preparations or "intestinal sacs" as an ex vivo model of intestinal barrier function. This model may be used to assess integrity of both the epithelial barrier and the mucous gel layer at specific intestinal sites in animal models of digestive disease.

The epithelial barrier is the first innate defense of the gastrointestinal tract and selectively regulates transport from the lumen to the underlying ...

Depletion of Mouse Cells from Human Tumor Xenografts Significantly Improves Downstream Analysis of Target Cells

The use of in vitro cell line models for cancer research has been a useful tool. However, it has been shown that these models fail to reliably mimic patient tumors in different assays1. Human tumor xenografts represent the gold standard with respect to tumor biology, drug discovery, and metastasis research 2-4. Tumor xenografts can be derived from different types of material like tumor cell lines, tumor tissue from primary patient tumors4 or serially transplanted tumors. When propagated in vivo, xenografted tissue is infiltrated and vascularized by cells of mouse origin. Multiple factors such as the tumor entity, the origin of xenografted material, growth rate and region of transplantation influence the composition and the amount of mouse cells present in tumor xenografts. However, even when these factors are kept constant, the degree of mouse cell contamination is highly variable.
Contaminating mouse cells significantly impair downstream analyses of human tumor xenografts. As mouse fibroblasts show high plating efficacies and proliferation rates, they tend to overgrow cultures of human tumor cells, especially slowly proliferating subpopulations. Mouse cell derived DNA, mRNA, and protein components can bias downstream gene expression analysis, next-generation sequencing, as well as proteome analysis 5. To overcome these limitations, we have developed a fast and easy method to isolate untouched human tumor cells from xenografted tumor tissue. This procedure is based on the comprehensive depletion of cells of mouse origin by combining automated tissue dissociation with the benchtop tissue dissociator and magnetic cell sorting. Here, we demonstrate that human target cells can be can be obtained with purities higher than 96% within less than 20 min independent of the tumor type.

Human tumor xenografts are vascularized and infiltrated by cells of mouse origin during the growth phase in vivo. To circumvent the bias caused by these contaminating cells during downstream analysis, we developed a method allowing for comprehensive depletion of all mouse cells by magnetic cell sorting.

The use of in vitro cell line models for cancer research has been a useful tool. However, it has been shown that these models fail to reliably mimic ...