We wish to acknowledge the cooperative spirit of all Caldwell Lab members. Movement disorders research in the lab has been supported by the Bachmann-Strauss Dystonia &amp; Parkinson Foundation, United Parkinson Foundation, American Parkinson Disease Association, Parkinson's Disease Association of Alabama, the Michael J. Fox Foundation for Parkinson's Research, and an Undergraduate Research

A. Expression Plasmid Construction
Two plasmids are required: one for tissue-specific expression of the gene of interest and a second as selectable transformation marker (though the marker plasmid is usually available from within the research community).
Experimental Plasmid
<ol>
<li>Select a promoter that is expressed in the tissue/cell type of interest; in this case, the DA transporter (Pdat-1) promoter is used. This expression plasmid was created as an Invitrogen Gateway system-compatible destination vector (pDEST-DAT-1) to allow the insertion of any gene of interest downstream of the promoter by recombinational cloning 1.</li>
<li>The cDNA of the gene of interest is PCR amplified using primers that contain the Gateway att B recombinational sequence. The amplified cDNA is first recombined into the donor vector pDONR201 to create the entry vector and then transformed into E. coli strain DH5&alpha;. Following selection of successful recombinants and mini-prep isolation of DNA, the entry vector is recombined into the pDEST-DAT-1 destination vector to create the expression plasmid. Details on recombinational cloning are available from either the Invitrogen Gateway manual or in Caldwell et al. 5. </li>
</ol>
Selectable Marker Plasmid
A transgenic marker plasmid consists of a vector with a promoter driving the expression of a fluorescent protein in an obvious tissue. In this particular procedure, the unc-54 promoter drives cherry protein expression in body wall muscle (Punc-54::cherry).
B. Generation of Transgenic C. elegans via Microinjection
See related JoVE&nbsp;article: <a href="https://www.jove.com/index/details.stp?ID=833">https://www.jove.com/index/details.stp?ID=833</a>
C. Genetic crosses for DA neurodegeneration Analysis
<ol>
<li>Worms are grown using standard procedures 6.</li>
<li>Place 10 Pdat-1::&alpha;-syn; Pdat-1::GFP males 1, 2 onto a mating plate with 3-4 L4 stage transgenic hermaphrodites (expressing Pdat-1::gene X and Punc-54::cherry). This should be performed individually for each of the three separate stable lines created. After two days, remove the males. </li>
<li>Inspect the F1 generation; if there are several male progeny, the mating was successful.</li>
<li>Clone out 5 hermaphrodite L4 animals from each cross that exhibit both the Pdat-1::GFP fluorescent marker (inherited from the male parent) and the Punc-54::cherry fluorescent body wall muscle marker (inherited from the hermaphrodite parent). The cloned animals need to be at the L4 stage to ensure that they have not yet mated with male animals present on the plate. Allow them to self-cross and produce F2 progeny.</li>
<li>F2 animals produced in step 3 are cloned out. Specifically, transfer ~5-10 animals that exhibit both fluorescent markers to their own individual plates. Screen the F3 generation for plates where 100% of the animals express GFP in DA neurons and some of the animals are express cherry in body wall muscle cells. These animals will be homozygous for the Pdat-1::&alpha;-syn; Pdat-1::GFP gene while stably transmitting the newly created transgene (gene X).</li>
</ol>
D. Dopaminergic Neuron Analysis
<ol>
<li>Prepare a fresh plate for each of the three lines created above, as well as the Pdat-1::&alpha;-syn; Pdat-1::GFP alone strain. Allow them to grow to adulthood. </li>
<li>Transfer 30-40 transgenic adults from each line onto a fresh plate. Allow them to lay embryos for 4 hours at 20&ordm;C.</li>
<li>Remove the adults. Allow the embryos to develop for 3-4 days at 20&ordm;C until they reach the L4 stage.</li>
<li>Pick ~100 transgenic L4 animals to a plate containing 0.04 mg/ml 5-fluoro-2'-deoxyuridine (FUDR). This nucleotide analog blocks development of the next generation via inhibition of DNA synthesis, thus preventing the offspring from overwhelming the experimental animals 7. Protect the FUDR plates from the light since it is light sensitive. </li>
<li>Adult animals will be analyzed at various days following egg laying. The appropriate days of analysis are determined empirically. For example, we have determined that 77%, 87%, and 90% of the Pdat-1::&alpha;-syn; Pdat-1::GFP animals exhibit degenerated DA neurons at days 6, 7 and 10 post development, respectively. Therefore, if we predict that the transgene of interest might enhance neurodegeneration, we will analyze at day 6 and/or 7. Likewise, transgenes that might suppress neurodegeneration will be analyzed at days 7 and 10.</li>
<li>Make 4 fresh agarose pads (unlike the microinjection agar pads, these are used fresh and are not allowed to dry out). Set out two microscope slides that have a piece of tape across them; the tape serves as spacer for equivalently thick pads. Lay a third slide between them on the bench (they are positioned three-abreast). Place a drop of molten agarose on the center slide and quickly lay another slide on top of the agarose, perpendicular to and across all three slides. Make several additional pads, leaving the two slides together until the pad is ready for use.</li>
<li>To analyze worm DA neurons, place a 6 &mu;l drop of 3 mM levamisole (an anesthetic) on a 22 x 30 mm cover glass. Pick 40 adult animals (10 extra beyond the 30 to be scored) into the drop, then invert the cover glass onto the agarose pad. Repeat for each of the other lines.</li>
<li>Score 30 animals per line for the presence of each CEP and ADE neuron using a compound microscope with epifluorescence and a filter cube that allows visualization of FITC or GFP. We use an Endow GFP HYQ filter cube (Chroma Technology). Record data on the attached scoring sheet. Wild-type animals will retain complete GFP fluorescence in all 4 CEP and 2 ADE neurons. Individual animals exhibiting loss of DA neurons are scored as non-WT or "degenerating". Likewise, the extent of degeneration can be scored by counting the total neurons lost in each animal as well as the population.</li>
<li>Repeat the analysis 2 more times (30 more animals per line per trial). The total number of worms exhibiting wild-type DA neurons from the three rounds of analyses is averaged. Statistical analysis for neuroprotection is then performed using the student&rsquo;s t-test (p &lt; 0.05) to compare control worms (Pdat-1::&alpha;-syn; Pdat-1::GFP) with strains that over-express candidate genes in DA neurons.</li>
</ol>

<ol>
	<li>Cao, S., Gelwix, C. C., Caldwell, K. A., Caldwell, G. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Torsin-mediated+neuroprotection+from+cellular+stresses+to+dopaminergic+neurons+of+C.+elegans.">Torsin-mediated neuroprotection from cellular stresses to dopaminergic neurons of C. elegans.</a> J Neurosci. 25, 3801-3812 (2005).</li><li>Hamamichi, S., Rivas, R. N., Knight, A. L., Cao, S., Caldwell, K. A., Caldwell, G. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Hypothesis-based+RNAi+screening+identifies+neuroprotective+genes+in+a+Parkinson&#x2019;s+disease+model.">Hypothesis-based RNAi screening identifies neuroprotective genes in a Parkinson&#x2019;s disease model.</a> PNAS. 105, 728-733 (2008).</li><li>Cooper, A. A., Gitler, A. D., Cashikar, A., Haynes, C. M., Hill, K. J., Bhullar, B., Liu, K., Xu, K., Strathearn, K. E., Liu, F., Cao, S., Caldwell, K. A., Caldwell, G. A., Marsischky, G., Kolodner, R. D., Labaer, J., Rochet, J. C., Bonini, N. M., Lindquist, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=alpha-synuclein+blocks+ER-golgi+traffic+and+Rab1+rescues+neuron+loss+in+Parkinson's+models.">alpha-synuclein blocks ER-golgi traffic and Rab1 rescues neuron loss in Parkinson's models.</a> Science. 313, 324-328 (2006).</li><li>Gitler, A. D., Bevis, B. J., Shorter, J., Strathearn, K. E., Hamamichi, S., Su, L. J., Caldwell, K. A., Caldwell, G. A., Rochet, J. -. C., McCaffery, J. M., Barlowe, C., Lindquist, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+Parkinson's+disease+protein+alpha-synuclein+disrupts+cellular+Rab+homeostasis.">The Parkinson's disease protein alpha-synuclein disrupts cellular Rab homeostasis.</a> PNAS. 105, 145-150 (2008).</li><li>Caldwell, G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Integrated+Genomics:+A+Discovery-Based+Laboratory+Course.">Integrated Genomics: A Discovery-Based Laboratory Course.</a> , (2006).</li><li>Brenner, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+genetics+of+Caenorhabditis+elegans.">The genetics of Caenorhabditis elegans.</a> Genetics. 77, 71-94 (1974).</li><li>Gandhi, S., Santelli, J., Mitchell, J. D. H., Stiles, J. W., Sanadi, D. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+simple+method+for+maintaining+large,+aging+populations+of+Caenorhabditis+elegans.">A simple method for maintaining large, aging populations of Caenorhabditis elegans.</a> Mechanisms of Ageing and Development. 12, 137-150 (1980).</li></ol>

The age-dependent loss of dopamine neurons is a clinical hallmark of Parkinson's disease and has been associated with the accumulation or misfolding of a protein called alpha-synuclein. Here we demonstrate how to label, via a fluorescent transgene, the dopaminergic neurons of C. elegans and mimic the neurodegeneration seen in Parkinson's disease by coexpressing human alpha-synuclein in these cells.
This video depicts the methodology for growth, genetic crossing, mounting, and scoring...

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		<th>Material Name</th>
		<th>Type</th>
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		<th>Catalogue Number</th>
		<th>Comment</th>
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<td>Agarose</td>
<td>Ultrapure</td>
<td>Invitrogen</td>
<td>15510-027</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>Coverglass 20x30 mm</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Fisher</td>
<td>12-548-5A</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>Microscope Slides</td>
<td>Plain, 3x1"</td>
<td>Fisher</td>
<td>12-549</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>Dissecting with Fluorescence</td>
<td>Microscope</td>
<td>Nikon</td>
<td>SMZ800</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>Dissecting</td>
<td>Microscope</td>
<td>Nikon</td>
<td>SMZ645</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
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<td>Epifluorescent</td>
<td>Microscope</td>
<td>Nikon</td>
<td>Model E-800</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>Filter Cube, GFP HYQ</td>
<td>Endow Bandpass</td>
<td>Chroma Technology</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
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application of a c. elegans dopamine neuron degeneration assay for the validation of potential parkinson's disease genes

Improvements to the diagnosis and treatment of Parkinson's disease (PD) are dependent upon knowledge about susceptibility factors that render populations at risk. In the process of attempting to identify novel genetic factors associated with PD, scientists have generated many lists of candidate genes, polymorphisms, and proteins that represent important advances, but these leads remain mechanistically undefined. Our work is aimed toward significantly narrowing such lists by exploiting the advantages of a simple animal model system. While humans have billions of neurons, the microscopic roundworm Caenorhabditis elegans has precisely 302, of which only eight produce dopamine (DA) in hemaphrodites. Expression of a human gene encoding the PD-associated protein, alpha-synuclein, in C. elegans DA neurons results in dosage and age-dependent neurodegeneration.
Worms expressing human alpha-synuclein in DA neurons are isogenic and express both GFP and human alpha-synuclein under the DA transporter promoter (Pdat-1). The presence of GFP serves as a readily visualized marker for following DA neurodegeneration in these animals. We initially demonstrated that alpha-synuclein-induced DA neurodegeneration could be rescued in these animals by torsinA, a protein with molecular chaperone activity 1. Further, candidate PD-related genes identified in our lab via large-scale RNAi screening efforts using an alpha-synuclein misfolding assay were then over-expressed in C. elegans DA neurons. We determined that five of seven genes tested represented significant candidate modulators of PD as they rescued alpha-synuclein-induced DA neurodegeneration 2. Additionally, the Lindquist Lab (this issue of JoVE) has performed yeast screens whereby alpha-synuclein-dependent toxicity is used as a readout for genes that can enhance or suppress cytotoxicity. We subsequently examined the yeast candidate genes in our C. elegans alpha-synuclein-induced neurodegeneration assay and successfully validated many of these targets 3, 4.
Our methodology involves generation of a C. elegans DA neuron-specific expression vector using recombinational cloning of candidate gene cDNAs under control of the Pdat-1 promoter. These plasmids are then microinjected in wild-type (N2) worms, along with a selectable marker for successful transformation. Multiple stable transgenic lines producing the candidate protein in DA neurons are obtained and then independently crossed into the alpha-synuclein degenerative strain and assessed for neurodegeneration, at both the animal and individual neuron level, over the course of aging.

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Application of a C. elegans Dopamine Neuron Degeneration Assay for the Validation of Potential Parkinson's Disease Genes at JoVE.com

Application of a C. elegans Dopamine Neuron Degeneration Assay for the Validation of Potential Parkinson&#039;s Disease Genes

This video demonstrates how to use C. elegans to assess dopaminergic neuron neurodegeneration as a model for Parkinson's disease. Furthermore, genetic screens are used to identify factors that either enhance degeneration or are neuroprotective.

Application of a C. elegans Dopamine Neuron Degeneration Assay for the Validation of Potential Parkinson's Disease Genes

Improvements to the diagnosis and treatment of Parkinson's disease (PD) are dependent upon knowledge about susceptibility factors that render populations ...

application-c-elegans-dopamine-neuron-degeneration-assay-for

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JoVE Journal

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15.9K Görüntüleme.  University of Alabama. Bu video C. elegans dopaminerjik nöron nörodejenerasyon, Parkinson hastalığı için bir model olarak değerlendirmek için nasıl kullanılacağını göstermektedir. Ayrıca, genetik ekranlar ya dejenerasyon geliştirmek veya nöroprotektif faktörleri tanımlamak için kullanılır.

Video: Application of a C. elegans Dopamine Neuron Degeneration Assay for the Validation of Potential Parkinson's Disease Genes

Ole Isacson: Development of New Therapies for Parkinson's Disease

Ole Isacson: Development of New Therapies for Parkinson&#039;s Disease

Ole Isacson gives a concise overview of Parkinsons's disease, its causes, therapeutic strategies, and advances in Parkinson's research.

Generation of Stable Transgenic C. elegans Using Microinjection

Transgenic Caenorhabditis elegans can be readily created via microinjection of a DNA plasmid solution into the gonad 1. The plasmid DNA rearranges to form extrachromosomal concatamers that are stably inherited, though not with the same efficiency as actual chromosomes 2. A gene of interest is co-injected with an obvious phenotypic marker, such as rol-6 or GFP, to allow selection of transgenic animals under a dissecting microscope. The exogenous gene may be expressed from its native promoter for cellular localization studies. Alternatively, the transgene can be driven by a different tissue-specific promoter to assess the role of the gene product in that particular cell or tissue. This technique efficiently drives gene expression in all tissues of C. elegans except for the germline or early embryo 3. Creation of transgenic animals is widely utilized for a range of experimental paradigms. This video demonstrates the microinjection procedure to generate transgenic worms. Furthermore, selection and maintenance of stable transgenic C. elegans lines is described.

This video demonstrates the technique of microinjection into the gonad of C. elegans to create transgenic animals.

Transgenic Caenorhabditis elegans can be readily created via microinjection of a DNA plasmid solution into the gonad 1.  The plasmid DNA rearranges to ...

Murine Model for Parkinson's Disease: from 6-OH Dopamine Lesion to Behavioral Test

Parkinson's disease (PD) affects at least 6.5 million people worldwide, irrespective of gender, social, ethnic, economic, or geographic boundaries. Key symptoms, such as tremor, rigidity and bradikinesia, develop when about 3/4 of dopaminergic cells are lost in the substantia nigra, and fail to provide for the smooth, coordinated regulation of striatal motor circuits. Depression and hallucinations are common, and dementia eventually occurs in 20% of patients. At this time, there is no treatment to delay or stop the progression of PD. Rather, the medications currently available aim more towards the alleviation of these symptoms. New surgical strategies may reversibly switch on the functionally damaged circuits through the electrical stimulation of deep brain structures, but although deep brain stimulation is a major advance, it is not suitable for all patients. It remains therefore necessary to test new cell therapy approaches in preclinical models.
Selective neurotoxic disruption of dopaminergic pathways can be reproduced by injection of 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) or MPTP (1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tertahydropyridine) whereas depleting drugs and oxidative-damaging chemicals may also reproduce specific features of PD in rodents. Unlike MPTP, 6-OHDA lesions cause massive irreversible neuronal loss, and can be uni- or bilateral. The 6-OHDA lesion model is reliable, leads to robust motor deficits, and is the most widely used after 40 years of research in rats1. As interactions between grafted cells and host can now be studied more thoroughly in mice rather than in rats, the model has been transposed to mice2,3, where it has been recently characterized4.
In this video, we demonstrate how to lesion the left nigro-striatal pathway of anesthetized mice by slowly delivering 2.0 &mu;L of 6-OHDA through a stereotaxically inserted micro-syringe needle. The loss of dopaminergic input occurs within days, and the functional impairments can be monitored over post-operative weeks and months by rating animal rotations induced by dopaminergic agents5. Here, we show full-body contralateral rotations occurring 10 minutes after a single subcutaneous administration of apomorphine, measured one month after the lesion. Outcomes and drawbacks are discussed below.

Murine Model for Parkinson&#039;s Disease: from 6-OH Dopamine Lesion to Behavioral Test

Parkinson disease is caused by loss of dopaminergic innervation to the striatum, which can be experimentally induced by 6-OH-dopamine. We describe how to perform a stereotaxic lesion and to monitor apomorphine-induced rotational behavior in mice. This model is useful and reliable for testing new therapies for Parkinson disease.

Parkinson's disease (PD) affects at least 6.5 million people worldwide, irrespective of gender, social, ethnic, economic, or geographic boundaries. Key ...

Generation of Transgenic C. elegans by Biolistic Transformation

The number of laboratories using the free living nematode C. elegans is rapidly growing. The popularity of this biological model is attributed to a rapid generation time and short life span, easy and inexpensive maintenance, fully sequenced genome, and array of RNAi resources and mutant animals. Additionally, analysis of the C. elegans genome revealed a great similarity between worms and higher vertebrates, which suggests that research in worms could be an important adjunct to studies performed in whole mice or cultured cells. A powerful and important part of worm research is the ability to use transgenic animals to study gene localization and function. Transgenic animals can be created either via microinjection of the worm germline or through the use of biolistic bombardment. Bombardment is a newer technique and is less familiar to a number of labs. Here we describe a simple protocol to generate transgenic worms by biolistic bombardment with gold particles using the Bio-Rad PDS-1000 system. Compared with DNA microinjection into hermaphrodite germline, this protocol has the advantage of not requiring special skills from the operator with regards to identifying worm anatomy or performing microinjection. Further multiple transgenic lines are usually obtained from a single bombardment. Also in contrast to microinjection, biolistic bombardment produces transgenic animals with both extrachromosomal arrays and integrated transgenes. The ability to obtain integrated transgenic lines can avoid the use of mutagenic protocols to integrate foreign DNA. In conclusion, biolistic bombardment can be an attractive method for the generation of transgenic animals, especially for investigators not interested in investing the time and effort needed to become skilled at microinjection.

Generation of Transgenic C. elegans by Biolistic Transformation

Transgenic worms are commonly used in C. elegans research. Described is a simple, yet effective, protocol to introduce transgenes into worms using biolistic bombardment with DNA-coated gold particles. The effort involved and results of bombardment compare favorably with microinjection for the generation of transgenic animals.

The number of laboratories using the free living nematode C. elegans is rapidly growing. The popularity of this biological model is attributed to a rapid ...

The Production of C. elegans Transgenes via Recombineering with the galK Selectable Marker

The creation of transgenic animals is widely utilized in C. elegans research including the use of GFP fusion proteins to study the regulation and expression pattern of genes of interest or generation of tandem affinity purification (TAP) tagged versions of specific genes to facilitate their purification. Typically transgenes are generated by placing a promoter upstream of a GFP reporter gene or cDNA of interest, and this often produces a representative expression pattern. However, critical elements of gene regulation, such as control elements in the 3' untranslated region or alternative promoters, could be missed by this approach. Further only a single splice variant can be usually studied by this means. In contrast, the use of worm genomic DNA carried by fosmid DNA clones likely includes most if not all elements involved in gene regulation in vivo which permits the greater ability to capture the genuine expression pattern and timing. To facilitate the generation of transgenes using fosmid DNA, we describe an E. coli based recombineering procedure to insert GFP, a TAP-tag, or other sequences of interest into any location in the gene. The procedure uses the galK gene as the selection marker for both the positive and negative selection steps in recombineering which results in obtaining the desired modification with high efficiency. Further, plasmids containing the galK gene flanked by homology arms to commonly used GFP and TAP fusion genes are available which reduce the cost of oligos by 50% when generating a GFP or TAP fusion protein. These plasmids use the R6K replication origin which precludes the need for extensive PCR product purification. Finally, we also demonstrate a technique to integrate the unc-119 marker on to the fosmid backbone which allows the fosmid to be directly injected or bombarded into worms to generate transgenic animals. This video demonstrates the procedures involved in generating a transgene via recombineering using this method.

The Production of C. elegans Transgenes via Recombineering with the galK Selectable Marker

The ability to produce transgenes for Caenorhabditis elegans using genomic DNA carried by fosmids is particularly attractive as all of the native regulatory elements are retained. Described is a simple and robust procedure for the production of transgenes via recombineering with the galK selectable marker.

The creation of transgenic animals is widely utilized in C. elegans research including the use of GFP fusion proteins to study the regulation and ...

Chromosomics: Detection of Numerical and Structural Alterations in All 24 Human Chromosomes Simultaneously Using a Novel OctoChrome FISH Assay

Fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) is a technique that allows specific DNA sequences to be detected on metaphase or interphase chromosomes in cell nuclei1. The technique uses DNA probes with unique sequences that hybridize to whole chromosomes or specific chromosomal regions, and serves as a powerful adjunct to classic cytogenetics. For instance, many earlier studies reported the frequent detection of increased chromosome aberrations in leukemia patients related with benzene exposure, benzene-poisoning patients, and healthy workers exposed to benzene, using classic cytogenetic analysis2. Using FISH, leukemia-specific chromosomal alterations have been observed to be elevated in apparently healthy workers exposed to benzene3-6, indicating the critical roles of cytogentic changes in benzene-induced leukemogenesis. 
Generally, a single FISH assay examines only one or a few whole chromosomes or specific loci per slide, so multiple hybridizations need to be conducted on multiple slides to cover all of the human chromosomes. Spectral karyotyping (SKY) allows visualization of the whole genome simultaneously, but the requirement for special software and equipment limits its application7. Here, we describe a novel FISH assay, OctoChrome-FISH, which can be applied for Chromosomics, which we define here as the simultaneous analysis of all 24 human chromosomes on one slide in human studies, such as chromosome-wide aneuploidy study (CWAS)8. The basis of the method, marketed by Cytocell as the Chromoprobe Multiprobe System, is an OctoChrome device that is divided into 8 squares, each of which carries three different whole chromosome painting probes (Figure 1). Each of the three probes is directly labeled with a different colored fluorophore, green (FITC), red (Texas Red), and blue (Coumarin). The arrangement of chromosome combinations on the OctoChrome device has been designed to facilitate the identification of the non-random structural chromosome alterations (translocations) found in the most common leukemias and lymphomas, for instance t(9;22), t(15;17), t(8;21), t(14;18)9. Moreover, numerical changes (aneuploidy) in chromosomes can be detected concurrently. The corresponding template slide is also divided into 8 squares onto which metaphase spreads are bound (Figure 2), and is positioned over the OctoChrome device. The probes and target DNA are denatured at high-temperature and hybridized in a humid chamber, and then all 24 human chromosomes can be visualized simultaneously. 
OctoChrome FISH is a promising technique for the clinical diagnosis of leukemia and lymphoma and for detection of aneuploidies in all chromosomes. We have applied this new Chromosomic approach in a CWAS study of benzene-exposed Chinese workers8,10.

A novel fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) method that simultaneously examines both numerical and structural chromosome alterations, particularly the specific chromosomal translocations associated with leukemia and lymphoma, of all 24 human chromosomes on a single device in one hybridization, is described.

Fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) is a technique that allows specific DNA sequences to be detected on metaphase or interphase chromosomes in cell ...

Using RNA-mediated Interference Feeding Strategy to Screen for Genes Involved in Body Size Regulation in the Nematode C. elegans

Double-strand RNA-mediated interference (RNAi) is an effective strategy to knock down target gene expression1-3. It has been applied to many model systems including plants, invertebrates and vertebrates. There are various methods to achieve RNAi in vivo4,5. For example, the target gene may be transformed into an RNAi vector, and then either permanently or transiently transformed into cell lines or primary cells to achieve gene knockdown effects; alternatively synthesized double-strand oligonucleotides from specific target genes (RNAi oligos) may be transiently transformed into cell lines or primary cells to silence target genes; or synthesized double-strand RNA molecules may be microinjected into an organism. Since the nematode C. elegans uses bacteria as a food source, feeding the animals with bacteria expressing double-strand RNA against target genes provides a viable strategy6. Here we present an RNAi feeding method to score body size phenotype. Body size in C. elegans is regulated primarily by the TGF- &beta; - like ligand DBL-1, so this assay is appropriate for identification of TGF-&beta; signaling components7. We used different strains including two RNAi hypersensitive strains to repeat the RNAi feeding experiments. Our results showed that rrf-3 strain gave us the best expected RNAi phenotype. The method is easy to perform, reproducible, and easily quantified. Furthermore, our protocol minimizes the use of specialized equipment, so it is suitable for smaller laboratories or those at predominantly undergraduate institutions.

Using RNA-mediated Interference Feeding Strategy to Screen for Genes Involved in Body Size Regulation in the Nematode C. elegans

We demonstrate how to use the RNAi feeding technique to knock down target genes and score body size phenotype in C. elegans. This method could be used for a large scale screen to identify potential genetic components of interest, such as those involved in body size regulation by DBL-1/TGF-&beta; signaling.

Double-strand RNA-mediated interference (RNAi) is an effective strategy to knock down target gene expression1-3. It has been applied to many model systems ...

C. elegans Chemotaxis Assay

Many organisms use chemotaxis to seek out food sources, avoid noxious substances, and find mates. Caenorhabditis elegans has impressive chemotaxis behavior.
 The premise behind testing the response of the worms to an odorant is to place them in an area and observe the movement evoked in response to an odorant. Even with the many available assays, optimizing worm starting location relative to both the control and test areas, while minimizing the interaction of worms with each other, while maintaining a significant sample size remains a work in progress 1-10. The method described here aims to address these issues by modifying the assay developed by Bargmann et al.1. A Petri dish is divided into four quadrants, two opposite quadrants marked "Test" and two are designated "Control". Anesthetic is placed in all test and control sites. The worms are placed in the center of the plate with a circle marked around the origin to ensure that non-motile worms will be ignored. Utilizing a four-quadrant system rather than one 2 or two 1 eliminates bias in the movement of the worms, as they are equidistant from test and control samples, regardless of which side of the origin they began. This circumvents the problem of worms being forced to travel through a cluster of other worms to respond to an odorant, which can delay worms or force them to take a more circuitous route, yielding an incorrect interpretation of their intended path. This method also shows practical advantages by having a larger sample size and allowing the researcher to run the assay unattended and score the worms once the allotted time has expired.

C. elegans Chemotaxis Assay

A method of quantitatively evaluating the chemotactic response of Caenorhabditis elegans is described. A chemotactic index (CI) was employed as a way to precisely evaluate the response of worms to certain targets, and serve as a platform of comparison between strains and compounds of interest.

Many organisms use chemotaxis to seek out food sources, avoid noxious substances, and find mates.  Caenorhabditis elegans has impressive chemotaxis ...

A Method for Culturing Embryonic C. elegans Cells

C. elegans is a powerful model system, in which genetic and molecular techniques are easily applicable. Until recently though, techniques that require direct access to cells and isolation of specific cell types, could not be applied in C. elegans. This limitation was due to the fact that tissues are confined within a pressurized cuticle which is not easily digested by treatment with enzymes and/or detergents. Based on early pioneer work by Laird Bloom, Christensen and colleagues 1 developed a robust method for culturing C. elegans embryonic cells in large scale. Eggs are isolated from gravid adults by treatment with bleach/NaOH and subsequently treated with chitinase to remove the eggshells. Embryonic cells are then dissociated by manual pipetting and plated onto substrate-covered glass in serum-enriched media. Within 24 hr of isolation cells begin to differentiate by changing morphology and by expressing cell specific markers. C. elegans cells cultured using this method survive for up 2 weeks in vitro and have been used for electrophysiological, immunochemical, and imaging analyses as well as they have been sorted and used for microarray profiling.

A Method for Culturing Embryonic C. elegans Cells

We describe here a revised protocol for large-scale culture of embryonic C. elegans cells. Embryonic C. elegans cells cultured in vitro using this method, appear to differentiate and recapitulate the expression of genes in a cell specific manner. Techniques that require direct access to the cells or isolation of specific cell types from the other tissues can be applied on C. elegans cultured cells.

C. elegans is a powerful model system, in which genetic and molecular techniques are easily applicable. Until recently though, techniques that require ...

Measuring the Effects of Bacteria on C. Elegans Behavior Using an Egg Retention Assay

C. elegans egg-laying behavior is affected by environmental cues such as osmolarity1 and vibration2. In the total absence of food C. elegans also cease egg-laying and retain fertilized eggs in their uterus3. However, the effect of different sources of food, especially pathogenic bacteria and particularly Enterococcus faecalis, on egg-laying
	behavior is not well characterized. The egg-in-worm (EIW) assay is a useful tool to quantify the effects of different types of bacteria, in this case E. faecalis, on egg- laying behavior.
	
	EIW assays involve counting the number of eggs retained in the uterus of C. elegans4. The EIW assay involves bleaching staged, gravid adult C. elegans to remove the cuticle and separate the retained eggs from the animal. Prior to bleaching, worms are exposed to bacteria (or any type of environmental cue) for a fixed period of time. After bleaching, one is very easily able to count the number of eggs retained inside the uterus of the worms. In this assay, a quantifiable increase in egg retention after E. faecalis exposure can be easily measured. The EIW assay is a behavioral assay that may be used to screen for potentially pathogenic bacteria or the presence of environmental toxins. In addition, the EIW assay may be a tool to screen for drugs that affect neurotransmitter signaling since egg-laying behavior is modulated by neurotransmitters such as serotonin and acetylcholine5-9.

Measuring the Effects of Bacteria on C. Elegans Behavior Using an Egg Retention Assay

An egg-in-worm (EIW) assay is a useful method to quantify egg-laying behavior. Alterations in egg laying can be a behavioral response of the model organism Caenorhabditis elegans to potentially harmful environmental substances such as those produced by pathogenic bacteria.

C. elegans egg-laying behavior is  affected by environmental cues such as osmolarity1 and  vibration2. In the total absence of food C. elegans also cease ...