This research was supported by NIH R21CA183492, the Simons Foundation, the Wallace Research Foundation, and by CTSA award UL1TR000445 from the National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences.

Ethics statement: All subjects must provide informed consent prior to the experiment. The research described here has been approved by the Vanderbilt University Medical Center&#8217;s Institutional Review Board.
1. Experiment Set Up
<ol>
	<li>Ask the participants to complete the tasks in a dimly lit, sound controlled room. 
	NOTE: Consider implementing a visual schedule29,30 as part of the study design. Although each task in this battery is relatively short, performing several tasks in a row can cause fatigue in some children, both with typical development (TD) and with ASD. A visual schedule should include all the planned activities (both tasks and hearing/vision screening), as well as short breaks between tasks. This structure will help contribute to an overall positive research experience for the participant, and has even been shown to elicit more accurate responses in some tasks31.</li>
	<li>Affix a chin rest to the table where the participant will sit while completing the task, with the computer monitor placed 60 cm away from the participant. This is to ensure that the stimuli are the same intensity for each participant. Use noise-cancelling headphones or speakers for auditory stimulus delivery.</li>
	<li>Due to differences in individual experimental platforms (sound card, graphics card, operating system, etc.), verify the stimulus duration and stimulus onset asynchronies (SOAs) with an oscilloscope, photovoltaic cell, and microphone on each computer for the experiment. 
	NOTE: Depending on the individual platform (for example, a slow sound card), make adjustments to the experiment code so that the timing of stimulus presentation is accurate.</li>
</ol>
2. Stimuli
<ol>
	<li>Generate 2 .wav or .mp4 files with duration of 16 msec (including a 2 - 3 msec up ramp and down ramp) at 500 Hz and 1,000 Hz. Do this by specifying a sine wave of the desired frequency with a gradual ramp up to full amplitude, followed by a down ramp at the end of the tone. Save the sine wave as an auditory file. Test the volume of each tone with a sound pressure level meter to verify that it is played at 60 dB. If speakers are used to present auditory stimuli, the sound should be tested at 60 cm away from the screen (where the participant will sit). If headphones will be used, measure the volume directly next to each headphone. 
	NOTE: It is easier to keep the computer at a standard volume and adjust the volume of the tone accordingly by adjusting the code used to generate the stimulus or an audio editing program.</li>
	<li>Create visual stimuli by either specifying the size and location of the flash in the experiment code, or by generating a JPEG or bitmap image with a black background and a white ring centered around a fixation crosshairs, and displaying at the appropriate time. Set the duration of the visual flash to 16 ms in the experiment code.</li>
	<li>Record speech stimuli by a native speaker in a quiet room against a plain white background from the shoulders up with the speaker in the center of the frame. Record the the video stimuli with the highest resolution video camera available. Alternatively, publicly available stimulus videos may be utilized if desired. 
	NOTE: Video and audio of the speaker saying the syllables &#8220;ba&#8221; and &#8220;ga&#8221; are required for this experiment.
	<ol>
		<li>Using any video editing program, export the auditory component of each track and save as a separate .wav file. Do this by going into export settings window and select &#8220;wav audio file&#8221; from the &#8220;Format&#8221; drop-down menu. Check &#8220;Export Audio&#8221; and then click &#8220;Export&#8221; to the bottom of the Export Settings window.&#160;</li>
		<li>Next, export the visual component (i.e., silent video) of each track and save as a separate .avi file. Do this by going into export settings window and select &#8220;Uncompressed AVI&#8221; from the &#8220;Format&#8221; drop-down menu. Check &#8220;Export Video&#8221; and then click &#8220;Export&#8221; to the bottom of the Export Settings window.</li>
		<li>Finally, remove the auditory component of the &#8220;ga&#8221; track and replace it with the auditory component of the &#8220;ba&#8221; track to make the McGurk stimulus. To do this select the &#8220;.avi&#8221; file from the desktop into the as the video source by selecting &#8220;Source&#8221;, in this case &#8220;ga_VOnly.avi&#8221;. Similarly select the other video &#8220;ba_Aonly.avi&#8221;. In the Program sequence menu, ensure that the video (V1) &#8220;Video 1&#8221; source is &#8220;ga_VOnly.avi&#8221;&#160;and the audio (A1) &#8220;Audio 1&#8221; source is &#8220;ba_Aonly.avi&#8221;.&#160;Verify that the onset of the visual stimulus &#8220;ga&#8221; is temporally aligned with the auditory stimulus &#8220;ba&#8221;. 
		NOTE: It is important that the auditory stimuli are the exact same recording in both the audiovisual and auditory only stimulus (not just the same syllable) so that the only difference between an audiovisual &#8220;ba&#8221; and the McGurk stimulus is the video component. This will ensure that one can make a proper comparison to examine the influence of the visual stimulus on the perceived auditory syllable.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
3. Task Battery
NOTE: This task requires that all participants are able to understand and comply with verbal instructions from the experimenter.
<ol>
	<li>Ensure that all participants have normal vision by conducting a simple screening prior to testing. Use a Snellen eye chart at 20 feet and ask the participant to read each line with both eyes open (participants will be viewing stimuli with both eyes open). Record the lowest line that participants accurately report the visual stimuli. Participants should have 20/40 vision or better.</li>
	<li>Ensure that all participants have normal hearing by testing hearing thresholds at 500, 1,000, 2,000, and 4,000 Hz in each ear. Auditory testing should be completed in a sound controlled room with an audiometer.
	<ol>
		<li>To find a participant&#8217;s threshold, instruct the participant to raise their hand each time they detect a tone. Play a pulsed 500 Hz tone routed to the right ear starting at 35 dB and decrease the volume in 5 dB steps. Once a participant no longer detects a tone, increase the volume in 5 dB steps to verify the lowest perceptible volume. Repeat this procedure with each frequency, and then repeat all tone frequencies in the left ear. Participants should have thresholds of 20 dB or lower.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Ensure that participants are able to understand and comply with verbal instructions by measuring both IQ and receptive language skills with standardized neuropsychological measures prior to testing. Participants should have a measured IQ of 70 or more. If desired, additional neuropsychological testing can be completed at this time.</li>
</ol>
4. Simultaneity Judgment (SJ)
NOTE: The SJ task is a two alternative forced-choice task (2-AFC) and consists of a visual ring and 1,000 Hz auditory tone presented at various SOAs (negative = auditory preceding visual, positive = visual proceeding auditory) presented in random order.
<ol>
	<li>Be sure to include fairly large SOAs (at least -400 to +400 msec) to get an accurate measurement of the full width of the TBW (typical stimulus set: -400, -300, -200, -150, -100, -50, 0, 50, 100, 150, 200, 300, 400 msec SOA). Use the same set of SOAs for each participant, which allows for easier comparison of task performance across participants. Present a minimum of 20 trials per SOA for a precise estimate. The task takes approximately 15 - 20 min to complete. Provide a short break every 100 trials to reduce participant fatigue.</li>
	<li>Instruct the participant to observe a flash and a beep and explain that their task is to decide if the flash and beep occurred at the same time or at different times. Instruct the participant to press &#8220;1&#8221; on the number pad, if the stimuli occurred at the same time, or &#8220;2&#8221;, if the stimuli occurred at a different time. 
	NOTE: If a response box is available, this may also be used for collecting responses. Include these same instructions on the response screen after each trial.</li>
	<li>As an alternative substitute the flash and beep with a visual and auditory speech token (mouthed &#8220;ba&#8221; and voiced &#8220;ba&#8221;) and present at the same SOAs with the same task instruction (&#8220;Same time or different time?&#8221;). In this manner, compare the TBW for stimuli varying in complexity and social content within individual subjects27.</li>
</ol>
5. Temporal Order Judgment (TOJ)
NOTE: The auditory TOJ task is a 2-AFC task used to examine the temporal acuity of auditory processing. The visual TOJ task is a 2-AFC task used to examine the temporal acuity of visual processing. The multisensory TOJ task is a 2-AFC task used to examine temporal acuity across audition and vision. Each task takes approximately 10 - 15 min to complete.
<ol>
	<li>In the auditory TOJ task, instruct the participant to listen to two beeps presented (500 Hz and 1,000 Hz) at various delays and ask the participant to press &#8220;1&#8221; if the higher tone is played first or press &#8220;2&#8221; if the lower tone is played first. Present 20 trials for each SOA in random order. 
	NOTE: Compared to the SJ task, there is a much smaller dynamic range of SOAs over which perception of unisensory auditory and visual temporal order changes, therefore use a stimulus set where smaller SOAs are more heavily represented (typical stimulus set: -250, -200, -150, -75, -50, -35, -20, -10, 10, 20, 35, 50, 75, 150, 200, 250 msec SOA, where negative = higher tone preceding lower tone, positive = lower tone proceeding higher tone) for the unisensory TOJ tasks.</li>
	<li>In the visual TOJ task, instruct the participant to observe two circles (above and below a central fixation crosshair) at various delays and ask the participant to press &#8220;1&#8221; if the top circle appears first or press &#8220;2&#8221; if the bottom circle appears first. Present 20 trials for each SOA in random order. 
	NOTE: In this task, negative SOAs indicate that the top circle was presented first and positive SOAs indicate that the bottom circle was presented first.</li>
	<li>In the audiovisual TOJ task, instruct the participant to observe a small central flash and listen to a single tone (1,000 Hz) at various delays and ask the participant to press &#8220;1&#8221;, if the beep was presented first or press &#8220;2&#8221; if the flash was presented first. Present 20 trials for each SOA in random order. 
	NOTE: Accuracy in the audiovisual TOJ is typically much worse compared to the unisensory auditory TOJ and visual TOJ tasks. This requires a wider range of SOAs compared to the unisensory TOJ tasks (typical stimulus set: -300, -250, -200, -150, -100, -80, -50, -20, 0, 20, 50, 80, 100, 150, 200, 250, 300). In this task, negative SOAs indicate that the auditory was presented first and positive SOAs indicated that the visual was presented first. 
	NOTE: As with the SJ task, the TOJ task can be adapted to examine temporal processing across multiple kinds of stimuli. Here the TOJ task was completed with simple stimuli (auditory beeps and visual flashes), but this can be expanded to look at other stimulus pairs like speech and biological motion24.</li>
</ol>
6. McGurk Task
NOTE: The McGurk illusion consists of a video of the visual syllable &#8220;ga&#8221; paired with an auditory recording of the syllable &#8220;ba&#8221;. Many subjects will actually fuse the visual and auditory syllables and perceive this pair as the syllable &#8220;da&#8221; or &#8220;tha&#8221;32.
<ol>
	<li>Instruct the participant to observe different syllables and ask the participant to report the syllable that they perceived. In one block present 20 trials each of the unisensory syllables (auditory only syllables (A-&#8220;ba&#8221;, A-&#8220;ga&#8221;) and visual only syllables (V-&#8220;ba&#8221;, V-&#8220;ga&#8221;) in random order. In a second block, present 20 trials each of the audiovisual syllables (AV-&#8220;ba&#8221;, AV-&#8220;ga&#8221;, and the A-&#8220;ba&#8221;/V-&#8220;ga&#8221; McGurk stimulus) in random order. Ask the participant to press the letter on the keyboard corresponding to the perceived syllable (&#8220;press b for ba, press g for ga, press d for da, press t for tha&#8221;). This task takes approximately 5 - 10 min total to complete.</li>
	<li>A more conservative estimate consists of an open response format33 in which the participant reports out loud the perceived syllable and the response is recorded by the experimenter.</li>
</ol>

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K., Yeung, P. K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Heterogeneity+within+Autism+Spectrum+Disorders:+What+have+We+Learned+from+Neuroimaging+Studies.">Heterogeneity within Autism Spectrum Disorders: What have We Learned from Neuroimaging Studies.</a> Front Hum Neurosci. 7, 733 (2013).</li><li>Irwin, J. R., Tornatore, L. A., Brancazio, L., Whalen, D. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Can+children+with+autism+spectrum+disorders+'hear'+a+speaking+face.">Can children with autism spectrum disorders 'hear' a speaking face.</a> Child Dev. 82 (5), 1397-1403 (2011).</li><li>Woynaroski, T. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Multisensory+Speech+Perception+in+Children+with+Autism+Spectrum+Disorders.">Multisensory Speech Perception in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders.</a> J Autism Dev Disord. 43 (12), 2891-2902 (2013).</li><li>Magnotti, J. F., Beauchamp, M. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+Noisy+Encoding+of+Disparity+Model+of+the+McGurk+Effect.">The Noisy Encoding of Disparity Model of the McGurk Effect.</a> Psychonomic Bulletin &amp; Review. , (2014).</li><li>Hillock-Dunn, A., Wallace, M. T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Developmental+changes+in+the+multisensory+temporal+binding+window+persist+into+adolescence.">Developmental changes in the multisensory temporal binding window persist into adolescence.</a> Dev Sci. 15 (5), 688-696 (2012).</li></ol>

The authors declare that they have no competing financial interests.

The manuscript describes elements of a psychophysical task battery that are used to assess temporal processing and acuity in sensory and multisensory systems research. The battery has wide applicability for a number of populations and has been used by our laboratory in order to characterize audiovisual temporal performance in typical adults18, children10,39, and in children and adults with autism17,23. In addition, it has been used to examine how various facets of the battery relate to on...

Traditional neuroscience research has often approached understanding sensory perception by focusing on the individual sensory modalities. However, the environment consists of a wide array of sensory inputs that are integrated into a unified perceptual view of the world in a seemingly effortless manner. The fact that we exist in such a rich multisensory environment requires that we better understand the way in which the brain combines information across the different sensory systems. The need for this understanding is further amplified by the fact that the presence of multiple pieces of sensory information often results in substantial improvements in behavior and perception1-3. For example, there is a large improvement (up to 15 dB in the signal-to-noise ratio) in the ability to understand speech in a noisy environment if the observer can also see the speaker&#8217;s lip movements4-7.
One of the major factors that affects how the different sensory inputs are combined and integrated is their relative temporal proximity. If two sensory cues occur close together in time, a temporal structure that suggests common origin, they are highly likely to be integrated as evidenced by changes in behavior and perception8-12. One of the most powerful experimental tools for examining the impact of multisensory temporal structure on behavioral and perceptual responses is simultaneity judgment (SJ) tasks13-16. In such a task, multisensory (e.g., visual and auditory) stimuli are paired at various stimulus onset asynchronies (SOAs) ranging from objectively simultaneous (i.e., a temporal offset of 0 msec) to highly asynchronous (e.g., 400 msec). Participants are asked to judge the stimuli as simultaneous or not via a simple button press. In such a task, even when the visual and auditory stimuli are presented at SOAs of 100 msec or more, subjects report that the pair was simultaneous on a large proportion of trials. The window of time in which two inputs can occur and have a high probability of being perceived as occurring simultaneously is known as the temporal binding window (TBW)17-19.
The TBW is a highly ethological construct, in that it represents the statistical regularities of the world around us19. The &#8220;window&#8221; provides flexibility for the specification of events of common origin; one that allows for stimuli occurring at different distances with different propagation times (both physical and neural) to still be &#8220;bound&#8221; to one another. However, although the TBW is a probabilistic construct, changes that expand (or contract) the size of this window are likely to have cascading and potentially detrimental effects on perception20,21.
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder that has been classically diagnosed on the basis of deficits in social communication and the presence of restricted interests and repetitive behaviors22. In addition, and as recently codified in the DSM-5, children with ASD frequently exhibit alterations in their responses to sensory stimuli. Rather than being restricted to a single sense, these deficits often encompass multiple senses including hearing, touch, balance, taste and vision. Along with such a &#8220;multisensory&#8221; presentation, individuals with ASD often exhibit deficits in the temporal realm. Collectively, these observations suggest that multisensory temporal function may be preferentially altered in autism17,23-25. Although concordant with the view of altered sensory function in ASD, changes in multisensory temporal function may also be an important contributor to the deficits in social communication in ASD, given the importance of rapid and accurate binding of multisensory stimuli for social and communication functions. Take as an example the speech exchange described above in which important information is contained in both the auditory and visual modalities. Indeed, these tasks have been used to demonstrate significant differences in the width of the multisensory TBW in high functioning children with autism26-28.
Due to its importance for normal perceptual function, its potential implications for higher order processes such as social communication (and other cognitive abilities), and its clinical relevance, a battery of tasks designed to assess multisensory temporal function in children with ASD is described.

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testing sensory and multisensory function in children with autism spectrum disorder

In addition to impairments in social communication and the presence of restricted interests and repetitive behaviors, deficits in sensory processing are now recognized as a core symptom in autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Our ability to perceive and interact with the external world is rooted in sensory processing. For example, listening to a conversation entails processing the auditory cues coming from the speaker (speech content, prosody, syntax) as well as the associated visual information (facial expressions, gestures). Collectively, the &#8220;integration&#8221; of these multisensory (i.e., combined audiovisual) pieces of information results in better comprehension. Such multisensory integration has been shown to be strongly dependent upon the temporal relationship of the paired stimuli. Thus, stimuli that occur in close temporal proximity are highly likely to result in behavioral and perceptual benefits &#8211; gains believed to be reflective of the perceptual system&#39;s judgment of the likelihood that these two stimuli came from the same source. Changes in this temporal integration are expected to strongly alter perceptual processes, and are likely to diminish the ability to accurately perceive and interact with our world. Here, a battery of tasks designed to characterize various aspects of sensory and multisensory temporal processing in children with ASD is described. In addition to its utility in autism, this battery has great potential for characterizing changes in sensory function in other clinical populations, as well as being used to examine changes in these processes across the lifespan.

This task battery has proven very successful in measuring individual differences in temporal processing in individuals with and without ASD17,18,23,27. For the SJ task, plot the resulting data from each individual subject by first calculating the proportion of responses at each SOA that subject responded &#8220;synchronous&#8221; and then fitting the resulting response curve with a Gaussian curve. As illustrated in Figure 1A, there is a window of time in which visual-auditory stimuli pairs can...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Testing Sensory and Multisensory Function in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder at JoVE.com

Testing Sensory and Multisensory Function in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder

We describe how to implement a battery of behavioral tasks to examine the processing and integration of sensory stimuli in children with ASD. The goal is to characterize individual differences in temporal processing of simple auditory and visual stimuli and relate these to higher order perceptual skills like speech perception.

In addition to impairments in social communication and the presence of restricted interests and repetitive behaviors, deficits in sensory processing are ...

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16.4K Views.  Vanderbilt University Medical Center. We describe how to implement a battery of behavioral tasks to examine the processing and integration of sensory stimuli in children with ASD. The goal is to characterize individual differences in temporal processing of simple auditory and visual stimuli and relate these to higher order perceptual skills like speech perception.

Video: Testing Sensory and Multisensory Function in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder

P50 Sensory Gating in Infants

Attentional deficits are common in a variety of neuropsychiatric disorders including attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder, autism, bipolar mood disorder, and schizophrenia. There has been increasing interest in the neurodevelopmental components of these attentional deficits; neurodevelopmental meaning that while the deficits become clinically prominent in childhood or adulthood, the deficits are the results of problems in brain development that begin in infancy or even prenatally. Despite this interest, there are few methods for assessing attention very early in infancy. This report focuses on one method, infant auditory P50 sensory gating.
Attention has several components. One of the earliest components of attention, termed sensory gating, allows the brain to tune out repetitive, noninformative sensory information. Auditory P50 sensory gating refers to one task designed to measure sensory gating using changes in EEG. When identical auditory stimuli are presented 500 ms apart, the evoked response (change in the EEG associated with the processing of the click) to the second stimulus is generally reduced relative to the response to the first stimulus (i.e. the response is &#34;gated&#34;). When response to the second stimulus is not reduced, this is considered a poor sensory gating, is reflective of impaired cerebral inhibition, and is correlated with attentional deficits.
Because the auditory P50 sensory gating task is passive, it is of potential utility in the study of young infants and may provide a window into the developmental time course of attentional deficits in a variety of neuropsychiatric disorders. The goal of this presentation is to describe the methodology for assessing infant auditory P50 sensory gating, a methodology adapted from those used in studies of adult populations.

Methods to record auditory P50 sensory gating, a physiological marker of cerebral inhibition which reflects early stages of attention, are described.

Attentional deficits are common in a variety of neuropsychiatric disorders including attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder, autism, bipolar mood ...

Quantitative Assessment of Cortical Auditory-tactile Processing in Children with Disabilities

Objective and easy measurement of sensory processing is extremely difficult in nonverbal or vulnerable pediatric patients. We developed a new methodology to quantitatively assess children&#39;s cortical processing of light touch, speech sounds and the multisensory processing of the 2 stimuli, without requiring active subject participation or causing children discomfort. To accomplish this we developed a dual channel, time and strength calibrated air puff stimulator that allows both tactile stimulation and sham control. We combined this with the use of event-related potential methodology to allow for high temporal resolution of signals from the primary and secondary somatosensory cortices as well as higher order processing. This methodology also allowed us to measure a multisensory response to auditory-tactile stimulation.

Objective and easy measurement of sensory processing is extremely difficult in nonverbal or vulnerable pediatric patients. We developed a new methodology to quantitatively assess infants and children&#39;s cortical processing of light touch, speech sounds, and the multisensory processing of the 2 stimuli, without requiring active subject participation or causing discomfort in vulnerable patients.

Objective and easy measurement of sensory processing is extremely difficult in nonverbal or vulnerable pediatric patients. We developed a new methodology ...

Barnes Maze Testing Strategies with Small and Large Rodent Models

Spatial learning and memory of laboratory rodents is often assessed via navigational ability in mazes, most popular of which are the water and dry-land (Barnes) mazes. Improved performance over sessions or trials is thought to reflect learning and memory of the escape cage/platform location. Considered less stressful than water mazes, the Barnes maze is a relatively simple design of a circular platform top with several holes equally spaced around the perimeter edge. All but one of the holes are false-bottomed or blind-ending, while one leads to an escape cage. Mildly aversive stimuli (e.g.&#160;bright overhead lights) provide motivation to locate the escape cage. Latency to locate the escape cage can be measured during the session; however, additional endpoints typically require video recording. From those video recordings, use of automated tracking software can generate a variety of endpoints that are similar to those produced in water mazes (e.g.&#160;distance traveled, velocity/speed, time spent in the correct quadrant, time spent moving/resting, and confirmation of latency). Type of search strategy (i.e.&#160;random, serial, or direct) can be categorized as well. Barnes maze construction and testing methodologies can differ for small rodents, such as mice, and large rodents, such as rats. For example, while extra-maze cues are effective for rats, smaller wild rodents may require intra-maze cues with a visual barrier around the maze. Appropriate stimuli must be identified which motivate the rodent to locate the escape cage. Both Barnes and water mazes can be time consuming as 4-7 test trials are typically required to detect improved learning and memory performance (e.g.&#160;shorter latencies or path lengths to locate the escape platform or cage) and/or differences between experimental groups. Even so, the Barnes maze is a widely employed behavioral assessment measuring spatial navigational abilities and their potential disruption by genetic, neurobehavioral manipulations, or drug/ toxicant exposure.

The dry-land Barnes maze is widely used to measure spatial navigation ability in response to mildly aversive stimuli. Over consecutive days, performance (e.g.&#160;latency to locate escape cage) of control subjects improves, indicative of normal learning and memory. Differences between rats and mice necessitate apparatus and methodology changes that are detailed here.

Spatial learning and memory of laboratory rodents is often assessed via navigational ability in mazes, most popular of which are the water and dry-land ...

Measurement of Fronto-limbic Activity Using an Emotional Oddball Task in Children with Familial High Risk for Schizophrenia

Adolescence is a critical developmental period where the early symptoms of schizophrenia frequently emerge. First-degree relatives of people with schizophrenia who are at familial high risk (FHR) may show similar cognitive and emotional changes. However, the neurological changes underlying the emergence of these symptoms remain unclear. This study sought to identify differences in frontal, striatal, and limbic regions in children and adolescents with FHR using functional magnetic resonance imaging. Groups of 21 children and adolescents at FHR and 21 healthy controls completed an emotional oddball task that relied on selective attention and the suppression of task-irrelevant emotional information. The standard oddball task was modified to include aversive and neutral distractors in order to examine potential group differences in both emotional and executive processing. This task was designed specifically to allow for children and adolescents to complete by keeping the difficulty and emotional image content age-appropriate. Furthermore, we demonstrate a technique for suitable fMRI registration for children and adolescent participants. This paradigm may also be applied in future studies to measure changes in neural activity in other populations with hypothesized developmental changes in executive and emotional processing.

This paper describes how to use the emotional oddball task and fMRI to measure brain activation in children and adolescents at familial high risk for schizophrenia (FHR).&#160;FMRI was used to measure differences in fronto-striato-limbic regions during an emotional oddball task. Children with FHR exhibited abnormal functional activation during adolescence.

Adolescence is a critical developmental period where the early symptoms of schizophrenia frequently emerge. First-degree relatives of people with ...

Measuring Attentional Biases for Threat in Children and Adults

Investigators have long been interested in the human propensity for the rapid detection of threatening stimuli. However, until recently, research in this domain has focused almost exclusively on adult participants, completely ignoring the topic of threat detection over the course of development. One of the biggest reasons for the lack of developmental work in this area is likely the absence of a reliable paradigm that can measure perceptual biases for threat in children. To address this issue, we recently designed a modified visual search paradigm similar to the standard adult paradigm that is appropriate for studying threat detection in preschool-aged participants. Here we describe this new procedure. In the general paradigm, we present participants with matrices of color photographs, and ask them to find and touch a target on the screen. Latency to touch the target is recorded. Using a touch-screen monitor makes the procedure simple and easy, allowing us to collect data in participants ranging from 3 years of age to adults. Thus far, the paradigm has consistently shown that both adults and children detect threatening stimuli (e.g., snakes, spiders, angry/fearful faces) more quickly than neutral stimuli (e.g., flowers, mushrooms, happy/neutral faces). Altogether, this procedure provides an important new tool for researchers interested in studying the development of attentional biases for threat.

Here we describe a touch-screen visual search paradigm that can be used to study threat detection across the lifespan. The paradigm has already been used in various studies demonstrating that both children and adults detect threatening stimuli like snakes, spiders, and angry faces faster than non-threatening stimuli.

Investigators have long been interested in the human propensity for the rapid detection of threatening stimuli. However, until recently, research in this ...

Psychophysical Tracking Method to Measure Taste Preferences in Children and Adults

The Monell two-series, forced-choice, paired-comparison tracking method provides a reliable measure of sweet taste preferences from childhood to adulthood. The method, which is identical for children, adolescents, and adults, is of short duration (&#60; 15 min), does not rely on sustained attention or place demands on memory (which would yield spurious age differences), and minimizes the impact of language development, making this method amenable to the cognitive limitations of pediatric populations. In this whole-mouth tasting method, subjects are asked to taste (without swallowing) pairs of solutions of different sucrose concentrations and to point to the solution they prefer. Each subsequent pair contains the participant&#39;s preceding preferred concentration and an adjacent stimulus concentration. The procedure continues until the subject chooses either a given concentration of sucrose when paired with both a higher and a lower concentration, or the highest or lowest concentration two consecutive times. Subjects are prevented from reaching response criteria on the basis of first or second position bias by the two-series design of the method, which counterbalances the order of solution presentation within each pair between the series (the weaker concentration is presented first in Series 1, second in Series 2). The geometric mean of the two sucrose concentrations chosen in Series 1 and 2 is an estimate of the participant&#39;s most preferred level of sucrose. Sucrose preference as determined with this laboratory-based measure has been shown to be associated with preference for sugars in foods and beverages and with taste receptor genotype, family history of alcoholism, and race/ethnicity, as well as depressive symptomatology among pediatric populations. The method has real-world relevance and has been applied to determine most preferred level of other tastes (e.g., salt), making it a valuable psychophysical tool.

Sweet taste has powerful hedonic appeal among people of all ages, particularly children. Described herein is a reliable and valid method that can be used to determine the level of sweetness most preferred, making it a valuable psychophysical tool for scientists.

The Monell two-series, forced-choice, paired-comparison tracking method provides a reliable measure of sweet taste preferences from childhood to ...

Assessing Working Memory in Children: The Comprehensive Assessment Battery for Children &#8211; Working Memory (CABC-WM)

The Comprehensive Assessment Battery for Children - Working Memory (CABC-WM) is a computer-based battery designed to assess different components of working memory in young school-age children. Working memory deficits have been identified in children with language-based learning disabilities, including dyslexia1,2 and language impairment3,4, but it is not clear whether these children exhibit deficits in subcomponents of working memory, such as visuospatial or phonological working memory. The CABC-WM is administered on a desktop computer with a touchscreen interface and was specifically developed to be engaging and motivating for children. Although the long-term goal of the CABC-WM is to provide individualized working memory profiles in children, the present study focuses on the initial success and utility of the CABC-WM for measuring central executive, visuospatial, phonological loop, and binding constructs in children with typical development. Immediate next steps are to administer the CABC-WM to children with specific language impairment, dyslexia, and comorbid specific language impairment and dyslexia.

Assessing Working Memory in Children: The Comprehensive Assessment Battery for Children &amp;#8211; Working Memory (CABC-WM)

Working memory predicts a significant amount of variance for a variety of cognitive tasks, including speaking, reading, and writing. However, few tools are available to assess working memory in children. We present an innovative, computer-based battery that comprehensively assesses different components of working memory in school-age children.

The Comprehensive Assessment Battery for Children - Working Memory (CABC-WM) is a computer-based battery designed to assess different components of ...

A Semantic Priming Event-related Potential (ERP) Task to Study Lexico-semantic and Visuo-semantic Processing in Autism Spectrum Disorder

Individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) have characteristic deficits in understanding the meaning of language, or semantic processing. However, some evidence indicates that semantic processing of non-linguistic stimuli is intact, suggesting that semantic deficits may be language-specific. To appropriately characterize semantic processing deficits in individuals with ASD, comparison of within-modality linguistic (e.g., written words) and non-linguistic (e.g., pictures) stimuli is required. This paper describes such a methodology that makes use of a semantic priming paradigm during concurrent recording of electroencephalographic (EEG) data. EEG provides a dynamic measure of brain activity that is well-suited to characterize subtle differences in semantic processing that may not be observable at the behavioral level. The semantic priming paradigm presents a prime picture or word (e.g., dog) followed by a target picture or word that is either related (e.g., cat) or unrelated (e.g., pencil) to the prime. This paradigm can thus be used to evaluate semantic processing across different modalities, and to compare lexico-semantic and visuo-semantic processing abilities in individuals with ASD and how they might differ from TD individuals. The specific steps involved in creating the stimuli, performing the EEG testing, and analyzing the EEG data are discussed. Representative results illustrate how the N400 component of the event-related potential (ERP) is reduced following semantically-related prime-target pairs compared to unrelated pairs. Comparisons of the N400 between conditions, modalities, and groups can provide estimates of the success of semantic processing, and can thereby be used to characterize semantic deficits in individuals with ASD or other clinical populations.

A Semantic Priming Event-related Potential ERP Task to Study Lexico-semantic and Visuo-semantic Processing in Autism Spectrum Disorder

This paper describes a semantic priming ERP task using within-modality pairs of pictures and words to investigate semantic processing in individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD).

Individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) have characteristic deficits in understanding the meaning of language, or semantic processing. However, ...

An Electrophysiology Protocol to Measure Reward Anticipation and Processing in Children

We present a protocol designed to measure the neural correlates of reward in children. The protocol allows researchers to measure both reward anticipation and processing. Its purpose is to create a reward task that is appropriate for young children with and without autism while controlling reward properties between two conditions: social and nonsocial. The current protocol allows for comparisons of brain activity between social and nonsocial reward conditions while keeping the reward itself identical between conditions. Using this protocol, we found evidence that neurotypical children demonstrate enhanced anticipatory brain activity during the social condition. Furthermore, we found that neurotypical children anticipate social reward more robustly than children with autism diagnoses. As the task uses snacks as a reward, it is most appropriate for young children. However, the protocol may be adapted for use with adolescent or adult populations if snacks are replaced by monetary incentives. The protocol is designed to measure electrophysiological events (event-related potentials), but it may be customized for use with eye-tracking or fMRI.

This protocol is designed to measure reward anticipation and processing in young children with and without autism. Specifically, the protocol is designed to study the neural correlates of reward during social and nonsocial conditions while controlling for reward between conditions.

We present a protocol designed to measure the neural correlates of reward in children. The protocol allows researchers to measure both reward anticipation ...

A Two-interval Forced-choice Task for Multisensory Comparisons

We provide a procedure for a psychophysics experiment in humans based on a previously described paradigm aimed to characterize the perceptual duration of intervals within the range of milliseconds of visual, acoustic, and audiovisual aperiodic trains of six pulses. In this task, each of the trials consists of two consecutive intramodal intervals where the participants press the upward arrow key to report that the second stimulus lasted longer than the reference, or the downward arrow key to indicate otherwise. The analysis of the behavior results in psychometric functions of the probability of estimating the comparison stimulus to be longer than the reference, as a function of the comparison intervals. In conclusion, we advance a way of implementing standard programming software to create visual, acoustic, and audiovisual stimuli, and to generate a two-interval forced-choice (2IFC) task by delivering stimuli through noise-blocking headphones and a computer&#39;s monitor.

Psychophysics is essential for studying perception phenomena through sensory information. Here we present a protocol to perform a two-interval forced-choice task as implemented in a previous report on human psychophysics where participants estimated the duration of visual, auditory, or audiovisual intervals of aperiodic trains of pulses.

We provide a procedure for a psychophysics experiment in humans based on a previously described paradigm aimed to characterize the perceptual duration of ...