This study was supported by the National Institute of Health grant 1K22AI097291-01 and by the National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences of the National Institutes of Health under Award Number UL1TR000433. We also acknowledge Prof. Darrell Irvine at MIT and Prof. Matthias Stephan at Fred Hutchinson Cancer Center for their contribution on the initial work on the vaccine nanoparticles and OT-I/Luc transgenic mice.

All experiments described in this protocol were approved by the University Committee on Use and Care of Animals (UCUCA) at University of Michigan and performed according to the established policies and guidelines.
1. Synthesis and Characterization of ICMVs Co-loaded with Protein Antigen and Adjuvant Molecules
<ol>
	<li>Mix 1:1 molar ratio of 1,2-dioleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (DOPC) and 1,2-dioleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoethanolamine-N-[4-(p-maleimidophenyl) butyramide] (MPB) in chloroform, keeping the total lipid amount at 1.26 &#181;mol per batch (i.e., 500 &#181;g of DOPC and 630 &#181;g of MPB) in a 20 ml glass vial (diameter = 28 mm and height = 61 mm).</li>
	<li>Add lipophilic drugs, such as monophosphoryl lipid A (MPLA) or lipophilic dyes (e.g., DiD), to the lipid solution at desired concentration. Thoroughly remove the organic solvent by purging with extra dry nitrogen gas and placing the samples under vacuum O/N.</li>
	<li>Hydrate the lipid film by adding 200 &#181;l of 10 mM bis-tris propane (BTP, pH 7.0) containing water-soluble drugs (e.g., protein antigens). Vortex for 10 sec every 10 min for 1 hr at RT.</li>
	<li>Transfer the contents from the glass vial into a 1.5 ml microcentrifuge tube, place samples in an ice-water bath, and sonicate continuously for 5 min using the 40% intensity setting on a 125 W/20 kHz probe-tip sonicator.</li>
	<li>Add 4 &#181;l of 150 mM dithiothreitol (DTT) to each batch (working concentration 2.4 mM), vortex, and briefly centrifuge using a tabletop microcentrifuge.</li>
	<li>Add 40 &#181;l of 200 mM CaCl2 and mix with the pipette (working concentration 33 mM). Incubate samples at 37 &#176;C for 1 hr to allow crosslinking of MPB-containing lipid layers with DTT.</li>
	<li>Centrifuge samples at 20,000 x g for 15 min, remove the supernatant, and resuspend in 200 &#181;l of ddiH2O.</li>
	<li>Repeat step 1.7 and centrifuge again after the second ddiH2O wash to remove CaCl2, unreacted DTT, and unencapsulated cargo materials from the supernatant.</li>
	<li>Prepare 10 mg/ml of 2 kDa polyethylene glycol-thiol (PEG-SH) in ddiH2O. Resuspend each ICMV sample in 100 &#181;l of PEG-SH solution and incubate at 37 &#176;C for 30 min.</li>
	<li>Perform two ddiH2O washes (step 1.7) and resuspend the final ICMV pellet in PBS and store at 4 &#176;C. Prior to use, mix the ICMV suspension, as particles may settle to the bottom after prolonged storage.</li>
	<li>For characterization of particles, remove a small aliquot (~10%) of ICMVs from each batch and dilute individually in a total volume of 1 ml of ddiH2O. Place a single sample in a Zetasizer cell and measure particle size, polydispersity index, and zeta potential of the samples using a DLS and zeta potential measuring system (according to the manufacturer&#8217;s protocol).</li>
</ol>
2. Examination of Lymph Node Draining of Fluorescence-tagged ICMVs with Confocal Microscopy
<ol>
	<li>Preparation of ICMVs loaded with fluorophore-tagged antigen and lipophilic fluorescent dye
	<ol>
		<li>Prepare fluorophore-tagged protein, such as ovalbumin reacted with Alexa Fluor 555-succinimidyl ester, according to the manufacturer&#8217;s instruction.</li>
		<li>To prepare ICMVs tagged with fluorophore in the lipid shell, add lipophilic fluorescent dye, (e.g., 1,1&#8242;-Dioctadecyl-3,3,3&#8242;,3&#8242;-Tetramethylindodicarbocyanine, (DiD)) during preparation of the lipid film (Step 1.2) at 0.05% molar lipid amount. For lipid film hydration (Step 1.3), use buffer containing fluorophore-tagged antigen, and complete ICMV synthesis as outlined in steps 1.4-1.11.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Subcutaneous administration of nanoparticles at tail base
	<ol>
		<li>Anesthetize mouse using a controlled flow vaporizer equipped with an induction chamber utilizing 3% isoflurane and 1.5 L/min of oxygen flow according to an IACUC approved animal protocol. Once the mouse is unconscious, perform the following steps quickly prior to the anesthesia wearing off to allow optimal access to the site of the injection and minimize discomfort to the animal. Alternatively, use a proper fitting nose cone to maintain anesthesia. If mice are anesthetized for longer than 5 min, apply eye lube necessary to minimize irritation after the procedure.</li>
		<li>Spray the base of the tail with 70% ethanol to sanitize and wet the fur&#160;Part the wet hair to expose a small patch of visible skin, which can be used to visualize the needle under the skin.</li>
		<li>Prepare particle injection suspension containing desired amount of antigen and adjuvant per 100 &#181;l of vaccination dose in PBS (e.g., 10 &#181;g OVA and 0.3 &#181;g MPLA per 100 &#181;l of injection dose has been used in the past6,9).</li>
		<li>Draw the particle suspension into a syringe with a 27-29 G needle and insert the needle at the base of the tail (~5 mm from hairline) with the bevel facing up and inject 50 &#181;l of the particle suspension22.</li>
		<li>Wait a few seconds for pressure to equalize to prevent excessive back-flow and pull the needle out. Repeat the injection on the other side of the tail base to target both draining inguinal LNs.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Preparation of lymph node cryosections and examination with confocal microscopy.
	<ol>
		<li>Euthanize the mouse with CO2 asphyxiation, followed by induced pneumothorax according to an IACUC approved animal protocol. Extract inguinal LNs according to protocol demonstrated in Bedoya23 and wash out the blood by placing the tissues in 1 ml of 4 &#176;C PBS.</li>
		<li>Absorb the PBS from the tissues with tissues and place tissue in tissue cryomolds (10 x 10 x 5 mm3) pre-filled to the top with OCT freezing medium24. Snap freeze the tissue block in liquid nitrogen for 30 sec. Alternatively, place tissue block on dry ice for 30 min. Store frozen tissue in -80 &#176;C freezer.</li>
		<li>Cut tissue sections 5-10 &#181;m thick in a cryostat set at -20 &#176;C24.</li>
		<li>If necessary, perform immunofluorescence labeling, and examine the tissue with confocal microscopy as previously demonstrated24.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
3. Monitoring Expansion of Antigen-specific, Luciferase-expressing CD8+ T Cells after Nanoparticle Vaccination with Whole Animal Imaging
<ol>
	<li>Isolation of OVA257-264-specific, luciferase-expressing CD8+ T cells from OT-I/Luc transgenic mice
	<ol>
		<li>Euthanize an OT-I/Luc transgenic mouse with CO2 asphyxiation and induce a pneumothorax according to an IACUC approved animal protocol. Harvest the spleen in a sterile manner by accessing the peritoneal cavity and carefully detaching the tissue from the pancreas23, and place in 5 ml of 4 &#176;C PBS + 2% FBS for transfer to tissue culture hood.</li>
		<li>Place the spleen on a 70 &#181;m nylon strainer over a 50 ml conical centrifuge tube (up to 3 spleens at a time). Using a plunger from a 3 ml syringe, grind the cells through the strainer.</li>
		<li>Wash the plunger and the strainer with PBS + 2% FBS and discard. Bring the total volume to 10 ml/spleen in the 50 ml tube, take a small sample of the cell suspension to count with a hemocytometer, and centrifuge for 10 min at 300 x g.</li>
		<li>Using a commercially available magnetic negative selection kit, isolate the CD8+ T cell population by following the manufacturer&#8217;s instructions.</li>
		<li>After washing cells with PBS, count the number of isolated CD8+ T cells. To assess purity of the isolated CD8+ T cells, incubate ~20,000-30,000 cells in 20 &#181;l of mouse CD16/32 antibody (0.025 mg/ml) for 10 min, then add 20 &#181;l of &#945;CD8-APC antibody (0.005 mg/ml) and incubate for 30 min. Perform all incubations at 4 &#176;C in PBS + 1% w/v BSA. Perform flow cytometric analysis25.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Adoptive transfer of isolated CD8+ T cells and visualization of their expansion post vaccination
	<ol>
		<li>Perform adoptive transfer of isolated OT-I/Luc CD8+ T cells into na&#239;ve C57BL/6 mice by administering 1-10 &#215; 105 cells in a 200 &#181;l volume of PBS via intravenous tail vein injection22 (day -1). Considering that fur and black skin patches in C57BL/6 mice may interfere with the bioluminescent signal, shaved albino C57BL/6 mice are ideal for these studies.</li>
		<li>After one day (day 0), administer the vaccine as described previously (section 2.2).</li>
		<li>Administer 150 mg of luciferin per kg mouse body weight intraperitoneally in a 300 &#181;l volume of PBS. After 10 min, anesthetize the mice with isoflurane (as in step 2.2.1) and visualize OT-I/Luc CD8+ T cells by acquiring the bioluminescence signal for 5-10 min with a whole animal imaging system (IVIS; refer to Wilson26 for detailed instruction). Repeat as necessary for longitudinal studies.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
4. Peptide-MHC Tetramer Staining of PBMCs for Analysis of Antigen-specific CD8+ T Cells
Note: The following protocol procedure can be performed using either C57BL/6 mice adoptively transferred with OT-I/Luc CD8+ T cells or C57BL/6 mice without the adoptive transfer.
<ol>
	<li>At a desired time point after vaccination, collect approximately 100 &#181;l of blood (4-6 drops) from mice via submandibular bleeding technique27 into a tube coated with K2EDTA and invert several times to prevent clotting.</li>
	<li>Transfer 100 &#181;l of blood to a microcentrifuge tube, add 1 ml of lysis buffer, and incubate for 2 to 3 min in order to remove red blood cells (RBCs). Centrifuge samples for 5 min at 1,500 x g and remove the supernatant. If the pellet still appears red (indicating incomplete removal of RBCs), repeat the lysis step with a brief incubation (&#60; 1 min) of lysis buffer.</li>
	<li>Wash the remaining PBMCs with 1 ml of FACS buffer (PBS + 1% w/v BSA) and centrifuge at 1,500 x g for 5 min.</li>
	<li>Aspirate the supernatant and resuspend the sample in 20 &#181;l of mouse CD16/32 antibody (0.025 mg/ml) to block nonspecific and FcR-mediated antibody binding. Incubate for 10 min at RT.</li>
	<li>Transfer cells from microcentrifuge tubes into 4 ml round bottom FACS tubes. Add 20 &#181;l of H-2Kb OVA Tetramer-SIINFEKL-PE solution according to the manufacturer&#8217;s specifications to each sample and incubate for 30 min on ice.</li>
	<li>Prepare the antibody cocktail (e.g., &#945;CD8-APC, &#945;CD44-FITC, and &#945;CD62L-PECy7 antibodies (0.005, 0.005, and 0.002 mg/ml concentration, respectively)). Add 20 &#181;l to each experimental sample, and incubate for 20 min on ice. Prepare single fluorophore controls by labeling cells with each fluorophore-tagged tetramer or antibody at the concentration indicated above.</li>
	<li>Wash 2 times with FACS buffer and resuspend the final pellet in FACS buffer containing 2 &#181;g/ml of DAPI. The cells are now ready for flow cytometry analysis (details and examples can be found in Scheffold25).</li>
</ol>

Perkin Elmer provided the production cost incurred during the publication of this article.

The protocol provided in this article describes the synthesis and characterization of a new lipid-based nanoparticle system, termed ICMVs, and provides the process of validating effectiveness of nanoparticle-based vaccine formulations to induce antigen-specific CD8+ T cell responses. ICMV synthesis is completed in all aqueous condition, which is a major advantage compared with other commonly used polymeric nanoparticle systems (e.g., poly(lactide-co-glycolide) acid particles), which typically require organic sol...

Traditional vaccine development has mainly employed the empirical approach of trial-and-error. However, with the recent development of a wide array of biomaterials and discovery of molecular determinants of immune activation, it is now possible to rationally design vaccine formulations with biophysical and biochemical cues derived from pathogens1,2. In particular, various particulate drug delivery platforms have been examined as vaccine carriers as they can be co-loaded with subunit antigens and immunostimulatory agents, protect vaccine components from degradation, and enhance their co-delivery to antigen presenting cells (APCs) residing in lymph nodes (LNs), thus maximizing immune stimulation and activation3-5. In this report, we describe the synthesis of a &#8220;pathogen-mimicking&#8221; nanoparticle system, termed interbilayer-crosslinked multilamellar vesicles (ICMVs), which have been previously demonstrated as a potent vaccine platform for elicitation of robust cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) and humoral immune responses in both systemic and mucosal tissue compartments6-9. In particular, vaccination with ICMVs achieved substantially enhanced serum IgG levels against a malaria antigen, compared with vaccination with conventional adjuvants (e.g., alum and Montanide)7 and also elicited potent CTL responses against tumor cells and viral challenge models in mice9. Here, using ICMVs as a model vaccine nanoparticle system, we describe methods for characterization of vaccine nano-formulations, including particle size and zeta potential measurements and tracking of particle trafficking to draining LNs (dLNs) utilizing confocal imaging of cryosectioned tissues7. In addition, we present a whole-animal imaging-based method of analyzing expansion of CTL responses in mice after adoptive transfer of luciferase-expressing antigen-specific CD8+ T cells9,10. Finally, we describe tetramer staining of peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) for longitudinal quantification of endogenous T cell responses in mice vaccinated with nanoparticles6,9.
ICMVs are a lipid-based nanoparticle formulation synthesized by controlled fusion of simple liposomes into multilamellar structures, which are then chemically stabilized by cross-linking maleimide-functionalized phospholipid head groups within lipid layers with dithiol crosslinkers6. Once ICMVs are synthesized, a small fraction of nanoparticles can be used to determine particle size and zeta potential (i.e., surface charge of particles) with a dynamic light scattering (DLS) system and a zeta potential analyzer. DLS measures changes in light scattering in particle suspensions, allowing determination of the diffusion coefficient and the hydrodynamic size of particles11. Achieving consistent particle size from batch to batch synthesis is critical since particle size is one of the major factors influencing lymphatic draining of vaccine particles to dLNs and subsequent cellular uptake by APCs12,13. In addition, zeta potential can be obtained by measuring the particle velocity when an electric current is applied, which allows determination of the electrophoretic mobility of particles and particle surface charge11. Ensuring consistent zeta potential values of particles is important since surface charge of particles determines colloidal stability, which has direct impact on particle dispersion during storage and after in vivo administration14,15. In order to track the particle localization to dLNs, ICMVs can be labeled with desired fluorophores including lipophilic dyes and covalently-tagged antigens. Following immunization, mice can be euthanized at various time points, dLNs resected, cryosectioned, and analyzed with confocal microscopy. This technique allows visualization of lymphatic draining of both the nanoparticle vaccine carriers and antigen to dLNs. The tissue sections can additionally be stained with fluorescently labeled antibodies and utilized to obtain more information, such as types of cells associated with the antigen and formation of germinal centers as we have shown previously7.
Once the particle synthesis is optimized and trafficking to the dLNs is confirmed, it is important to validate elicitation of in vivo CTL expansion. In order to analyze elicitation of antigen-specific CD8+ T cells in response to nanoparticle vaccination, we have utilized a model antigen, ovalbumin (OVA), with OVA257-264 peptide (SIINFEKL) immunodominant CD8+ T cell epitope, which allows detailed immunological analyses of antigen-specific T cell responses for initial vaccine development16,17. In particular, to interrogate the dynamics of expansion and migration of antigen-specific CD8+ T cells, we have generated a double-transgenic mouse model by crossing firefly luciferase-expressing transgenic mice (Luc) with OT-I transgenic mice that possess CD8+ T cells with T-cell receptor (TCR) specific for SIINFEKL (in association with H-2Kb). From these OT-I/Luc mice, luciferase-expressing, OT-I CD8+ T cells can be isolated and prepared for adoptive transfer into na&#239;ve C57BL/6 mice. Once seeded, successful immunization with OVA-containing nanoparticles will result in expansion of the transferred T cells, which can be tracked by monitoring the bioluminescence signal with a whole animal imaging system9,10. This non-invasive whole-body imaging technique has been used with other viral or tumor antigens in the past18-20, revealing processes involved in T cell expansion in lymphoid tissues and dissemination to peripheral tissues in a longitudinal manner.
Complementary to analysis of adoptively transferred antigen-specific CD8+ T cells, endogenous T cell responses post vaccination can be examined with the peptide-major histocompatibility complex (MHC) tetramer assay21, in which a peptide-MHC tetramer complex, consisting of four fluorophore-tagged MHC-class I molecules loaded with peptide epitopes, is employed to bind TCR and label CD8+ T cells in an antigen-specific manner. The peptide-MHC tetramer assay can be performed either in terminal necropsy studies to identify antigen-specific CD8+ T cells in lymphoid and peripheral tissues or in longitudinal studies with peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) obtained from serial blood draws. After staining lymphocytes with peptide-MHC tetramer, flow cytometry analysis is performed for detailed analyses on the phenotype of CTLs or quantification of their frequency among CD8+ T cells.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>1. Synthesis and characterization of ICMVs co-loaded with protein antigen and adjuvant molecules</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>1,2-dioleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoethanolamine-N-[4-(p-maleimidophenyl)butyramide] (sodium salt) (MPB)</td>
			<td>Avanti Polar Lipids, INC.</td>
			<td>870012</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>1,2-dioleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (DOPC)</td>
			<td>Avanti Polar Lipids, INC.</td>
			<td>850375</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Monophosphoryl Lipid A (Synthetic) (PHAD&#8482;) (MPLA)</td>
			<td>Avanti Polar Lipids, INC.</td>
			<td>699800</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>20 mL glass vials</td>
			<td>Wheaton</td>
			<td>0334125D</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Symphny Vacuum Oven</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>414004-580</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ovalbumin (OVA)</td>
			<td>Worthington</td>
			<td>3054</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Bis-Tris Propane (BTP)</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>BP2943</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Q125 Sonicator (125W/20kHz)</td>
			<td>Qsonica</td>
			<td>Q125-110</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dithiothreitol (DTT)</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>BP172</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>2 kDa Thiolated Polyethylene Glycol (PEG-SH)</td>
			<td>Laysan Bio</td>
			<td>MPEG-SH-2000-1g</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Malvern ZetaSizer Nano ZSP&#160;</td>
			<td>Malvern</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ZetaSizer Cuvettes</td>
			<td>Malvern</td>
			<td>DTS1070</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>2. Examination of lymph node draining of fluorescence-tagged ICMVs with confocal microscopy</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>1,1&#39;-Dioctadecyl-3,3,3&#39;,3&#39;-Tetramethylindodicarbocyanine, 4-Chlorobenzenesulfonate Salt (DID)</td>
			<td>Life Technologies</td>
			<td>D-7757</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Alexa Fluor 555-succinimidyl ester (AF555-NHS)</td>
			<td>Life Technologies</td>
			<td>A37571</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tissue-Tek OCT freezing medium&#160;</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>25608-930</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tissue Cryomolds</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>25608-922</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>3. Monitoring expansion of antigen-specific, luciferase-expressing CD8+ T cells after nanoparticle vaccination with whole animal imaging</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>C57BL/6 mice</td>
			<td>Jackson</td>
			<td>000664</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Albino C57BL/6 mice</td>
			<td>Jackson</td>
			<td>000058</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>OT-1 C57BL/6 mice</td>
			<td>Jackson</td>
			<td>003831</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>70 &#956;m nylon strainer</td>
			<td>BD</td>
			<td>352350</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>EasySep&#8482; Mouse CD8+ T Cell Isolation Kit</td>
			<td>StemCell</td>
			<td>19853</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>IVIS&#174; whole animal imaging system</td>
			<td>Perkin Elmer</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>4. Peptide-MHC tetramer staining of peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) for flow cytometric analysis of antigen-specific CD8+ T cells</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>K2EDTA tubes</td>
			<td>BD</td>
			<td>365974</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ACK lysis buffer</td>
			<td>Life Technologies</td>
			<td>A10492-01&#160;</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Anti-CD16/32 Fc Block</td>
			<td>Ebioscience</td>
			<td>14-0161-86</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>H-2Kb OVA Tetramer</td>
			<td>MBL</td>
			<td>TS-5001-1C</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Anti-CD8-APC</td>
			<td>BD</td>
			<td>553031</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Anti-CD44-FITC</td>
			<td>BD</td>
			<td>553133</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Anti-CD62L-PECy7</td>
			<td>Ebioscience</td>
			<td>25-0621-82</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>4&#8242;,6-Diamidino-2-phenylindole dihydrochloride (DAPI)</td>
			<td>SIGMA</td>
			<td>D8417-10MG</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>CyAn Flow Cytometer</td>
			<td>Beckman Coulter</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>FlowJo Software</td>
			<td>FlowJo</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

whole-animal imaging and flow cytometric techniques for analysis of antigen-specific cd8+ t cell responses after nanoparticle vaccination

Traditional vaccine adjuvants, such as alum, elicit suboptimal CD8+ T cell responses. To address this major challenge in vaccine development, various nanoparticle systems have been engineered to mimic features of pathogens to improve antigen delivery to draining lymph nodes and increase antigen uptake by antigen-presenting cells, leading to new vaccine formulations optimized for induction of antigen-specific CD8+ T cell responses. In this article, we describe the synthesis of a &#8220;pathogen-mimicking&#8221; nanoparticle system, termed interbilayer-crosslinked multilamellar vesicles (ICMVs) that can serve as an effective vaccine carrier for co-delivery of subunit antigens and immunostimulatory agents and elicitation of potent cytotoxic CD8+ T lymphocyte (CTL) responses. We describe methods for characterizing hydrodynamic size and surface charge of vaccine nanoparticles with dynamic light scattering and zeta potential analyzer and present a confocal microscopy-based procedure to analyze nanoparticle-mediated antigen delivery to draining lymph nodes. Furthermore, we show a new bioluminescence whole-animal imaging technique utilizing adoptive transfer of luciferase-expressing, antigen-specific CD8+ T cells into recipient mice, followed by nanoparticle vaccination, which permits non-invasive interrogation of expansion and trafficking patterns of CTLs in real time. We also describe tetramer staining and flow cytometric analysis of peripheral blood mononuclear cells for longitudinal quantification of endogenous T cell responses in mice vaccinated with nanoparticles.

The steps involved in the synthesis of ICMVs are illustrated in Figure 16. Briefly, a lipid film containing any lipophilic drugs or fluorescent dyes is hydrated in the presence of hydrophilic drugs. Divalent cations, such as Ca2+, are added to drive fusion of anionic liposomes into multilamellar vesicles. Dithiol crosslinker, such as DTT, is added to &#8220;staple&#8221; maleimide-functionalized lipids on apposing lipid layers, and finally remaining external maleimide groups are que...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Whole-animal Imaging and Flow Cytometric Techniques for Analysis of Antigen-specific CD8+ T Cell Responses after Nanoparticle Vaccination at JoVE.com

Whole-animal Imaging and Flow Cytometric Techniques for Analysis of Antigen-specific CD8+ T Cell Responses after Nanoparticle Vaccination

We describe whole-animal imaging and flow cytometry-based techniques for monitoring expansion of antigen-specific CD8+ T cells in response to immunization with nanoparticles in a murine model of vaccination.

Traditional vaccine adjuvants, such as alum, elicit suboptimal CD8+ T cell responses. To address this major challenge in vaccine development, various ...

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Immunology and Infection

13.2K Views.  University of Michigan. We describe whole-animal imaging and flow cytometry-based techniques for monitoring expansion of antigen-specific CD8+ T cells in response to immunization with nanoparticles in a murine model of vaccination.

Video: Whole-animal Imaging and Flow Cytometric Techniques for Analysis of Antigen-specific CD8+ T Cell Responses after Nanoparticle Vaccination

Isolation and Flow Cytometric Analysis of Immune Cells from the Ischemic Mouse Brain

Ischemic stroke initiates a robust inflammatory response that starts in the intravascular compartment and involves rapid activation of brain resident cells. A key mechanism of this inflammatory response is the migration of circulating immune cells to the ischemic brain facilitated by chemokine release and increased endothelial adhesion molecule expression. Brain-invading leukocytes are well-known contributing to early-stage secondary ischemic injury, but their significance for the termination of inflammation and later brain repair has only recently been noticed.
Here, a simple protocol for the efficient isolation of immune cells from the ischemic mouse brain is provided. After transcardial perfusion, brain hemispheres are dissected and mechanically dissociated. Enzymatic digestion with Liberase&#160;is followed by density gradient (such as Percoll) centrifugation to remove myelin and cell debris. One major advantage of this protocol is the single-layer density gradient procedure which does not require time-consuming preparation of gradients and can be reliably performed. The approach yields highly reproducible cell counts per brain hemisphere and allows for measuring several flow cytometry panels in one biological replicate. Phenotypic characterization and quantification of brain-invading leukocytes after experimental stroke may contribute to a better understanding of their multifaceted roles in ischemic injury and repair.

Inflammation plays a central role in the pathogenesis of ischemic stroke. Increasing evidence suggests that it acts as a double-edged sword which exacerbates early brain injury, but also contributes to later repair. This protocol describes the isolation of immune cells from the ischemic brain and their subsequent flow cytometric phenotyping.

Ischemic stroke initiates a robust inflammatory response that starts in the intravascular compartment and involves rapid activation of brain resident ...

Development of Stem Cell-derived Antigen-specific Regulatory T Cells Against Autoimmunity

Autoimmune diseases arise due to the loss of immunological self-tolerance. Regulatory T cells (Tregs) are important mediators of immunologic self-tolerance. Tregs represent about 5 - 10% of the mature CD4+ T cell subpopulation in mice and humans, with about 1 - 2% of those Tregs circulating in the peripheral blood. Induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) can be differentiated into functional Tregs, which have a potential to be used for cell-based therapies of autoimmune diseases. Here, we present a method to develop antigen (Ag)-specific Tregs from iPSCs (i.e., iPSC-Tregs). The method is based on incorporating the transcription factor FoxP3 and an Ag-specific T cell receptor (TCR) into iPSCs and then differentiating on OP9 stromal cells expressing Notch ligands delta-like (DL) 1 and DL4. Following in vitro differentiation, the iPSC-Tregs express CD4, CD8, CD3, CD25, FoxP3, and Ag-specific TCR and are able to respond to Ag stimulation. This method has been successfully applied to cell-based therapy of autoimmune arthritis in a murine model. Adoptive transfer of these Ag-specific iPSC-Tregs into Ag-induced arthritis (AIA)-bearing mice has the ability to reduce joint inflammation and swelling and to prevent bone loss.

We present here a method to develop functional antigen (Ag)-specific regulatory T cells (Tregs) from induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) for immunotherapy of autoimmune arthritis in a murine model.

Autoimmune diseases arise due to the loss of immunological self-tolerance. Regulatory T cells (Tregs) are important mediators of immunologic ...

Flow Cytometric Analysis of Natural Killer Cell Lytic Activity in Human Whole Blood

NK cell cytotoxicity is a widely used measure to determine the effect of outside intervention on NK cell function. However, the accuracy and reproducibility of this assay can be considered unstable, either because of user&#39;s errors or because of the sensitivity of NK cells to experimental manipulation. To eliminate these issues, a workflow that reduces them to a minimum was established and is presented here. To illustrate, we obtained blood samples, at various time points, from runners (n = 4) that were submitted to an intense bout of exercise. First, NK cells are simultaneously identified and isolated through CD56 tagging and magnetic-based sorting, directly from whole blood and from as little as one milliliter. The sorted NK cells are removed of any reagent or capping antibodies. They can be counted in order to establish an accurate NK cell count per milliliter of blood. Secondly, the sorted NK cells (effectors cells or E) can be mixed with 3,3&#39;-Diotadecyloxacarbocyanine Perchlorate (DiO) tagged K562 cells (target cells or T) at an assay-optimal 1:5 T:E ratio, and analyzed using an imaging flow-cytometer that allows for the visualization of each event and the elimination of any false positive or false negatives (such as doublets or effector cells). This workflow can be completed in about 4 h, and allows for very stable results even when working with human samples. When available, research teams can test several experimental interventions in human subjects, and compare measurements across several time points without compromising the data&#39;s integrity.

This work describes an advanced workflow for the accurate and fast determination of NK (Natural Killer) cell count and NK cell cytotoxicity in human blood samples.

NK cell cytotoxicity is a widely used measure to determine the effect of outside intervention on NK cell function. However, the accuracy and ...

Isolation and Flow Cytometric Analysis of Human Endocervical Gamma Delta T Cells

The female reproductive tract (FRT) mucosal immune system serves as the first line of defense. Better knowledge of the genital mucosa is therefore essential for understanding pathogenicity of different pathogens including HIV. Gamma delta (GD) T cells are the prototype of &#39;unconventional&#39; T cells and represent a relatively small subset of T cells defined by their expression of heterodimeric T-cell receptors (TCRs) composed of gamma and delta chains. This sets them apart from the classical and much better known CD4+ helper T cells and CD8+ cytotoxic T cells that are defined by alpha-beta TCRs. GD T cells often show tissue-specific localization and are enriched in epithelium. GD T cells orchestrate immune responses in inflammation, tumor surveillance, infectious disease, and autoimmunity.
Here, we present a method to reproducibly isolate and analyze human endocervical intraepithelial GD T lymphocytes. We have used endocervical cytobrush samples from women participating in the Women&#39;s Interagency HIV Infection Study (WIHS). Knowledge about GD T cells interactions during conditions in which there is an insult to the vaginal mucosal could be applied to any clinical study in which mucosal vulnerability is addressed, including the development of vaginal microbicides.In addition, knowledge about mucosal GD T cell responses has potential for application of GD T cell-based immune therapy in treating infectious diseases.

We describe here an isolation method to obtain human endocervical intraepithelial lymphocytes for the analysis of intraepithelial gamma delta T cells. This protocol can be extended for the purification of endocervical gamma delta T cells by magnetic beads or by cell sorting.

The female reproductive tract (FRT) mucosal immune system serves as the first line of defense. Better knowledge of the genital mucosa is therefore ...

In Situ MHC-tetramer Staining and Quantitative Analysis to Determine the Location, Abundance, and Phenotype of Antigen-specific CD8 T Cells in Tissues

T cells are critical to many immunological processes, including detecting and eliminating virus-infected cells, preventing autoimmunity, assisting in B-cell and plasma-cell production of antibodies, and detecting and eliminating cancer cells. The development of MHC-tetramer staining of antigen-specific T cells analyzed by flow cytometry has revolutionized our ability to study and understand the immunobiology of T cells. While extremely useful for determining the quantity and phenotype of antigen-specific T cells, flow cytometry cannot determine the spatial localization of antigen-specific T cells to other cells and structures in tissues, and current disaggregation techniques to extract the T cells needed for flow cytometry have limited effectiveness in non-lymphoid tissues. In situ MHC-tetramer staining (IST) is a technique to visualize T cells that are specific for antigens of interest in tissues. In combination with immunohistochemistry (IHC), IST can determine the abundance, location, and phenotype of antigen-specific CD8 and CD4 T cells in tissues. Here, we describe a protocol to stain and enumerate antigen-specific CD8 T cells, with specific phenotypes located within specific tissue compartments. These procedures are the same that we used in our recent publication by Li et al., entitled &#34;Simian Immunodeficiency Virus-Producing Cells in Follicles Are Partially Suppressed by CD8+ Cells In Vivo.&#34; The methods described are broadly applicable because they can be used to localize, phenotype, and quantify essentially any antigen-specific CD8 T cell for which MHC tetramers are available, in any tissue.

In Situ MHC-tetramer Staining and Quantitative Analysis to Determine the Location, Abundance, and Phenotype of Antigen-specific CD8 T Cells in Tissues

Here, we describe a method that combines in situ MHC-tetramer staining with immunohistochemistry to determine localization, phenotype, and quantity of antigen-specific T cells in tissues. This protocol is used to determine the spatial and phenotypic characteristics of antigen-specific CD8 T cells relative to other cell type and structures in tissues.

T cells are critical to many immunological processes, including detecting and eliminating virus-infected cells, preventing autoimmunity, assisting in ...

In Vivo Assay for Detection of Antigen-specific T-cell Cytolytic Function Using a Vaccination Model

Current methodologies for antigen-specific killing are limited to in vitro use or utilized in infectious disease models. However, there is not a protocol specifically intended to measure antigen-specific killing without an infection. This protocol is designed and describes methods to overcome these limitations by allowing for the detection of antigen-specific killing of a target cell by CD8+ T cells in vivo. This is accomplished by merging a vaccination model with a traditional CFSE-labeled target killing assay. This combination allows the researcher to assess the antigen-specific CTL potential directly and quickly as the assay is not dependent upon tumor growth or infection. In addition, the readout is based on flow cytometry and so should be readily accessible to most researchers. The major limitation of the study is identifying the timeline in vivo that is appropriate to the hypothesis being tested. Variations in antigen strength and mutations in the T cells that may result in differential cytolytic function need to be carefully assessed to determine the optimal time for cell harvest and assessment. The appropriate concentration of peptide for vaccination has been optimized for hgp10025-33 and OVA257-264, but further validation would be needed for other peptides that may be more appropriate to a given study. Overall, this protocol allows a quick assessment of killing function in vivo and can be adapted to any given antigen.

In Vivo Assay for Detection of Antigen-specific T-cell Cytolytic Function Using a Vaccination Model

The goal of this protocol is to allow for detection of in vivo antigen-specific killing of a target cell in a murine model.

Current methodologies for antigen-specific killing are limited to in vitro use or utilized in infectious disease models. However, there is not a protocol ...

Optimized Interferon-gamma ELISpot Assay to Measure T Cell Responses in the Guinea Pig Model after Vaccination

The guinea pig has played a pivotal role as a relevant small animal model in the development of vaccines for infectious diseases such as tuberculosis, influenza, diphtheria, and viral hemorrhagic fevers. We have demonstrated that plasmid-DNA (pDNA) vaccine delivery into the skin elicits robust humoral responses in the guinea pig. However, the use of this animal to model immune responses was somewhat limited in the past due to the lack of available reagents and protocols to study T cell responses. T cells play a pivotal role in both immunoprophylactic and immunotherapeutic mechanisms. Understanding T cell responses is crucial for the development of infectious disease and oncology vaccines and accommodating delivery devices. Here we describe an interferon-gamma (IFN-&#947;) enzyme-linked immunospot (ELISpot) assay for guinea pig peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs). The assay enables researchers to characterize vaccine-specific T-cell responses in this important rodent model. The ability to assay cells isolated from the peripheral blood provides the opportunity to track immunogenicity in individual animals.

The development of the interferon-gamma ELISpot assay for guinea pig PBMCs allows the characterization of T-cell responses in this highly relevant model for studying infectious diseases. We have applied the assay to measure T cell responses associated with intradermal delivery of DNA vaccines.

The guinea pig has played a pivotal role as a relevant small animal model in the development of vaccines for infectious diseases such as tuberculosis, ...

Simultaneous Quantification of Anti-vector and Anti-transgene-Specific CD8+ T Cells Via MHC I Tetramer Staining After Vaccination with a Viral Vector

Upon viral infection, antigen-specific CD8+ cytotoxic T cells (CTLs) arise and contribute to the elimination of infected cells to prevent the spread of pathogens. Therefore, the frequency of antigen-specific CTLs is indicative of the strength of the T cell response against a specific antigen. Such analysis is important in basic immunology, vaccine development, cancer immunobiology and the adaptive immunology. In the vaccine field, the CTL response directed against components of a viral vector co-determines how effective the generation of antigen-specific cells against the antigen of interest (i.e., transgene) is. Antigen-specific CTLs can either be detected by stimulation with specific peptides followed by intracellular cytokine staining or by the direct staining of antigen-specific T cell receptors (TCRs) and analysis by flow cytometry. The first method is rather time-consuming since it requires sacrificing of animals to isolate cells from organs. Also, it requires isolation of blood from small animals which is difficult to perform. The latter method is rather fast, can be easily done with small amounts of blood and is not dependent on specific effector functions, such as cytolytic activity. MHC tetramers are an ideal tool to detect antigen-specific TCRs.
Here, we describe a protocol to simultaneously detect antigen-specific CTLs for the immunodominant peptides of the viral vector VSV-GP (LCMV-GP, VSV-NP) and transgenes (OVA, HPV 16 E7, eGFP) by MHC I tetramer staining and flow cytometry. Staining is possible either directly from blood or from single cell suspensions of organs, such as spleen. Blood or single cell suspensions of organs are incubated with tetramers. After staining with antibodies against CD3 and CD8, antigen-specific CTLs are quantified by flow cytometry. Optionally, antibodies against CD43, CD44, CD62L or others can be included to determine the activation status of antigen-specific CD8+T cells and to discriminate between na&#239;ve and effector cells.

Simultaneous Quantification of Anti-vector and Anti-transgene-Specific CD8+ T Cells Via MHC I Tetramer Staining After Vaccination with a Viral Vector

Here, we present a protocol for the ex vivo qualitative detection of antigen-specific CD8+ T cells. Analysis is possible with single cell suspensions from organs or from small amounts of blood. A broad range of studies require the analysis of cytotoxic T cell responses (vaccination and cancer immunotherapy studies).

Upon viral infection, antigen-specific CD8+ cytotoxic T cells (CTLs) arise and contribute to the elimination of infected cells to prevent the spread of ...

Tailoring In Vivo Cytotoxicity Assays to Study Immunodominance in Tumor-specific CD8+ T Cell Responses

Carboxyfluorescein succinimidyl ester (CFSE)-based in vivo cytotoxicity assays enable sensitive and accurate quantitation of CD8+ cytolytic T lymphocyte (CTL) responses elicited against tumor- and pathogen-derived peptides. They offer several advantages over traditional killing assays. First, they permit the monitoring of CTL-mediated cytotoxicity within architecturally intact secondary lymphoid organs, typically in the spleen. Second, they allow for mechanistic studies during the priming, effector and recall phases of CTL responses. Third, they provide useful platforms for vaccine/drug efficacy testing in a truly in vivo setting. Here, we provide an optimized protocol for the examination of concomitant CTL responses against more than one peptide epitope of a model tumor antigen (Ag), namely, simian virus 40 (SV40)-encoded large T Ag (T Ag). Like most other clinically relevant tumor proteins, T Ag harbors many potentially immunogenic peptides. However, only four such peptides induce detectable CTL responses in C57BL/6 mice. These responses are consistently arranged in a hierarchical order based on their magnitude, which forms the basis for TCD8 &#8220;immunodominance&#8221; in this powerful system. Accordingly, the bulk of the T Ag-specific TCD8 response is focused against a single immunodominant epitope while the other three epitopes are recognized and responded to only weakly. Immunodominance compromises the breadth of antitumor TCD8 responses and is, as such, considered by many as an impediment to successful vaccination against cancer. Therefore, it is important to understand the cellular and molecular factors and mechanisms that dictate or shape TCD8 immunodominance. The protocol we describe here is tailored to the investigation of this phenomenon in the T Ag immunization model, but can be readily modified and extended to similar studies in other tumor models. We provide examples of how the impact of experimental immunotherapeutic interventions can be measured using in vivo cytotoxicity assays.

Tailoring In Vivo Cytotoxicity Assays to Study Immunodominance in Tumor-specific CD8+ T Cell Responses

We describe here a flow cytometry-based in vivo killing assay that enables examination of immunodominance in cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) responses to a model tumor antigen. We provide examples of how this elegant assay may be employed for mechanistic studies and for drug efficacy testing.

Carboxyfluorescein succinimidyl ester (CFSE)-based in vivo cytotoxicity assays enable sensitive and accurate quantitation of CD8+ cytolytic T lymphocyte ...

Isolation of Mouse Kidney-Resident CD8+ T cells for Flow Cytometry Analysis

Tissue-resident memory T cell (TRM) is a rapidly expanding field of immunology research. Isolating T cells from various non-lymphoid tissues is one of the key steps to investigate TRMs. There are slight variations in lymphocyte isolation protocols for different organs. Kidney is an essential non-lymphoid organ with numerous immune cell infiltration especially after pathogen exposure or autoimmune activation. In recent years, multiple labs including our own have started characterizing kidney resident CD8+ T cells in various physiological and pathological settings in both mouse and human. Due to the abundance of T lymphocytes, kidney represents an attractive model organ to study TRMs in non-mucosal or non-barrier tissues. Here, we will describe a protocol commonly used in TRM-focused labs to isolate CD8+ T cells from mouse kidneys following systemic viral infection. Briefly, using an acute lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV) infection model in C57BL/6 mice, we demonstrate intravascular CD8+ T cell labeling, enzymatic digestion, and density gradient centrifugation to isolate and enrich lymphocytes from mouse kidneys to make samples ready for the subsequent flow cytometry analysis.

Isolation of Mouse Kidney-Resident CD8+ T cells for Flow Cytometry Analysis

Following viral infection, kidney harbors a relatively large number of CD8+ T cells and offers an opportunity to study non-mucosal TRM cells. Here, we describe a protocol to isolate mouse kidney lymphocytes for flow cytometry analysis.

Tissue-resident memory T cell (TRM) is a rapidly expanding field of immunology research. Isolating T cells from various non-lymphoid tissues is one of the ...