This work was supported by funds from the National Institutes of Health MH097163. Some strains were provided by the CGC, which is funded by the NIH Office of Research Infrastructure Programs (P40-OD010440).

<ol>
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The authors declare that they have no competing financial interests.

We have described a protocol that uses a commercially available dsRNA feeding library to perform large-scale screens in C. elegans. We provide all instructions to duplicate the library and to use it effectively. We demonstrate that this approach is able to identify genes involved in different biological processes in different tissues of the animal. While the phenotypes we describe here are easily observable (Unc, Egl, and Dpy), this protocol can be adapted to search for genes required for nearly any biological p...

Historically, genetic screens in C. elegans have been performed by treating animals with a chemical mutagen such as ethyl methanesulfonate to create random mutations within DNA. Progeny or grandprogeny of mutagenized animals are then isolated that exhibit a desired abnormal phenotype. The mutation responsible for causing the phenotype is then identified through a labor-intensive mapping procedure or by sequencing the mutant worm's entire genome. There are many advantages to performing such chemical mutagenesis screens as they create permanent lesions within the worm genome that can result in both gain-of-function and loss-of-function phenotypes, but the mapping procedure is slow and expensive.
Double-stranded RNA interference (dsRNAi) provides an alternative means to identify genes involved in important biological processes. In this method, dsRNA matching the coding sequence of an endogenous gene is introduced into the worm. The dsRNA is processed in vivo to generate small (21-22 nucleotide) RNAs that serve as guides to find and bind the matching endogenous mRNAs, targeting them for destruction 1. This procedure is relatively quick, but because dsRNA targets mRNA rather than DNA, only reduction-of-function phenotypes are observed using this approach.
Introduction of dsRNAs into an animal can be achieved by direct injection of dsRNA 2, by soaking animals in dsRNA 3, or by feeding animals bacteria that express dsRNA 4. Each of these delivery methods cause systemic knockdown effects as most cells of the animal express SID-1, a transmembrane channel capable of importing dsRNA 5. Originally used as a reverse genetics approach to knockdown the expression of individual genes one at a time, the development of two feeding libraries now permits large-scale genetic screens. The commercially-available dsRNA libraries contain bacterial clones representing either 55% or 87% of all C. elegans genes 6, 7.
Unfortunately, large scale dsRNAi feeding screens often result in variable knockdown efficiencies 8-10. While the absolute level of knockdown by RNAi is not easily measured, the reduced knockdown efficiency observed in large scale screens must be caused by residual gene-specific mRNAs that escape degradation by RNAi. This, in turn, could be a direct result of dsRNA plasmid loss from bacteria fed to animals in these screens. Supporting this idea, animals fed mixtures of bacteria, in which only 50% of the bacteria express dsRNAs against a targeted gene, show dramatically reduced (if any) knockdown effects when compared to control fed animals 11. The extent of gene knockdown becomes a critical concern when performing dsRNAi screens as most genes in C. elegans are haplosufficient and thus gene expression must be reduced by at least 50% to cause loss-of-function phenotypes 12.
We have used previously published feeding protocols to perform large-scale screens and found the same variable knockdown effects reported by others 8-10. In a search for possible causes, we found that nearly 60% of the bacteria fed to animals in the screen had lost the dsRNA plasmid. We have developed a library duplication and screening protocol that dramatically reduces or eliminates plasmid loss and greatly improves knockdown efficiency. This protocol is suitable for performing large scale screens in C. elegans and can be used to screen either one of the commercially available dsRNA libraries. Using this protocol, we find that essentially 100% of the bacteria fed to animals during the screen retain the dsRNA-encoding plasmid and cause robust and highly penetrant loss of function phenotypes in all tissues examined.

<table border="1">
 <tbody>
 <tr>
 <td></td>
 <td></td>
 <td></td>
 <td>Reagent/Material</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>96-well Falcon flat bottom plate </td>
 <td>Fisher Scientific</td>
 <td>353072</td>
 <td>sterile</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>adhesive foil</td>
 <td>USA Scientific</td>
 <td>2923-0100</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Nunc omniplate</td>
 <td>Fisher Scientific</td>
 <td>267060</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>2.0 ml deep 96-well polypropylene Masterblock</td>
 <td>USA Scientific</td>
 <td>5678-0285</td>
 <td>autoclavable</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Lids for deep well plates</td>
 <td>USA Scientific</td>
 <td>5665-6101</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>50 ml combitips</td>
 <td>USA Scientific</td>
 <td>4796-5000</td>
 <td>individually wrapped</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Reservoir</td>
 <td>USA Scientific</td>
 <td>2977-8500</td>
 <td>autoclavable</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>12-well plates</td>
 <td>USA Scientific</td>
 <td>CC7682-7512</td>
 <td>individually wrapped</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>dsRNA feeding library</td>
 <td>OpenBiosystems</td>
 <td>RCE1181</td>
 <td>store -80 &deg;C</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Ampicillin</td>
 <td>Fisher Scientific</td>
 <td>BP1760-5</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Tetracycline</td>
 <td>Fisher Scientific</td>
 <td>BP912-100</td>
 <td></td>
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 <td>Carbenicillin</td>
 <td></td>
 <td></td>
 <td>allow 2-4 weeks for delivery <a href="http://www.biochemicaldirect.com" target="_blank">www.biochemicaldirect.com</a></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Bacteriolgical Agar Ultrapure grade A </td>
 <td>Affymetrix</td>
 <td>10906</td>
 <td>for worm plates</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td></td>
 <td></td>
 <td></td>
 <td>Equipment</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Brayer roller</td>
 <td>USA Scientific</td>
 <td>9127-2940</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Boekel 96-pin replicator</td>
 <td>Fisher Scientific</td>
 <td>05-450-9</td>
 <td>autoclavable</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>microshaker</td>
 <td>Thomas Scientific</td>
 <td>1231A93</td>
 <td>3 mm orbit</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>12 channel multichannel pipet (0.5-10 &mu;l)</td>
 <td>USA Scientific</td>
 <td>7112-0510</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>12 channel multichannel pipet (30-300 &mu;l)</td>
 <td>USA Scientific</td>
 <td>7112-3300</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Repeater Plus manual pipettor</td>
 <td>USA Scientific</td>
 <td>4026-0201</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 </tbody>
 </table>

large-scale gene knockdown in c. elegans using dsrna feeding libraries to generate robust loss-of-function phenotypes

RNA interference by feeding worms bacteria expressing dsRNAs has been a useful tool to assess gene function in C. elegans. While this strategy works well when a small number of genes are targeted for knockdown, large scale feeding screens show variable knockdown efficiencies, which limits their utility. We have deconstructed previously published RNAi knockdown protocols and found that the primary source of the reduced knockdown can be attributed to the loss of dsRNA-encoding plasmids from the bacteria fed to the animals. Based on these observations, we have developed a dsRNA feeding protocol that greatly reduces or eliminates plasmid loss to achieve efficient, high throughput knockdown. We demonstrate that this protocol will produce robust, reproducible knock down of C. elegans genes in multiple tissue types, including neurons, and will permit efficient knockdown in large scale screens. This protocol uses a commercially available dsRNA feeding library and describes all steps needed to duplicate the library and perform dsRNA screens. The protocol does not require the use of any sophisticated equipment, and can therefore be performed by any C. elegans lab.

P0 knockdown phenotypes will begin to appear after 2-3 days of feeding animals dsRNA expressing bacteria. Some early phenotypes include larval arrest and lethality and should be observed in 2-3% of all feeding wells. These same phenotypes will also be observed in the F1 generation animals. The presence of F1 eggs that fail to hatch is another common F1 phenotype, and together, these three phenotypes will be observed in nearly 10% of all wells in F1 screens.
We used the protocol described here ...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Large-scale Gene Knockdown in C. elegans Using dsRNA Feeding Libraries to Generate Robust Loss-of-function Phenotypes at JoVE.com

Large-scale Gene Knockdown in C. elegans Using dsRNA Feeding Libraries to Generate Robust Loss-of-function Phenotypes

While dsRNA feeding in C. elegans is a powerful tool to assess gene function, current protocols for large scale feeding screens result in variable knockdown efficiencies. We describe an improved protocol for performing large scale RNAi feeding screens that results in highly efficacious and reproducible knockdown of gene expression.

Large-scale Gene Knockdown in C. elegans Using dsRNA Feeding Libraries to Generate Robust Loss-of-function Phenotypes

RNA interference by feeding worms bacteria expressing dsRNAs has been a useful tool to assess gene function in C. elegans. While this strategy works well ...

large-scale-gene-knockdown-c-elegans-using-dsrna-feeding-libraries-to

Research

JoVE Journal

Biology

11.9K 次观看.  University of Massachusetts, Amherst. 而喂养的dsRNA在C线虫是一种功能强大的工具来评估基因功能，为大规模饲养屏幕当前的协议导致变量击倒效率。我们描述了一种改进的协议用于进行大规模的RNAi馈送屏幕，导致基因表达的高度有效的和可再现的击倒。 

视频: Large-scale Gene Knockdown in C. elegans Using dsRNA Feeding Libraries to Generate Robust Loss-of-function Phenotypes

Large-Scale Screens of Metagenomic Libraries

Metagenomic libraries archive large fragments of contiguous genomic sequences from microorganisms without requiring prior cultivation. Generating a streamlined procedure for creating and screening metagenomic libraries is therefore useful for efficient high-throughput investigations into the genetic and metabolic properties of uncultured microbial assemblages. Here, key protocols are presented on video, which we propose is the most useful format for accurately describing a long process that alternately depends on robotic instrumentation and (human) manual interventions. First, we employed robotics to spot library clones onto high-density macroarray membranes, each of which can contain duplicate colonies from twenty-four 384-well library plates. Automation is essential for this procedure not only for accuracy and speed, but also due to the miniaturization of scale required to fit the large number of library clones into highly dense spatial arrangements. Once generated, we next demonstrated how the macroarray membranes can be screened for genes of interest using modified versions of standard protocols for probe labeling, membrane hybridization, and signal detection. We complemented the visual demonstration of these procedures with detailed written descriptions of the steps involved and the materials required, all of which are available online alongside the video.

Metagenomic libraries archive large fragments of contiguous genomic sequences from microorganisms without requiring prior cultivation.  Generating a ...

Generation of Stable Transgenic C. elegans Using Microinjection

Transgenic Caenorhabditis elegans can be readily created via microinjection of a DNA plasmid solution into the gonad 1. The plasmid DNA rearranges to form extrachromosomal concatamers that are stably inherited, though not with the same efficiency as actual chromosomes 2. A gene of interest is co-injected with an obvious phenotypic marker, such as rol-6 or GFP, to allow selection of transgenic animals under a dissecting microscope. The exogenous gene may be expressed from its native promoter for cellular localization studies. Alternatively, the transgene can be driven by a different tissue-specific promoter to assess the role of the gene product in that particular cell or tissue. This technique efficiently drives gene expression in all tissues of C. elegans except for the germline or early embryo 3. Creation of transgenic animals is widely utilized for a range of experimental paradigms. This video demonstrates the microinjection procedure to generate transgenic worms. Furthermore, selection and maintenance of stable transgenic C. elegans lines is described.

This video demonstrates the technique of microinjection into the gonad of C. elegans to create transgenic animals.

Transgenic Caenorhabditis elegans can be readily created via microinjection of a DNA plasmid solution into the gonad 1.  The plasmid DNA rearranges to ...

Using an Automated Cell Counter to Simplify Gene Expression Studies: siRNA Knockdown of IL-4 Dependent Gene Expression in Namalwa Cells

The use of siRNA mediated gene knockdown is continuing to be an important tool in studies of gene expression.  siRNA studies are being conducted not only to study the effects of downregulating single genes, but also to interrogate signaling pathways and other complex interaction networks.  These pathway analyses require both the use of relevant cellular models and methods that cause less perturbation to the cellular physiology.  Electroporation is increasingly being used as an effective way to introduce siRNA and other nucleic acids into difficult to transfect cell lines and primary cells without altering the signaling pathway under investigation. There are multiple critical steps to a successful siRNA experiment, and there are ways to simplify the work while improving the data quality at several experimental stages.  To help you get started with your siRNA mediated gene knockdown project, we will demonstrate how to perform a pathway study complete from collecting and counting the cells prior to electroporation through post transfection real-time PCR gene expression analysis.  The following study investigates the role of the transcriptional activator STAT6 in IL-4 dependent gene expression of CCL17 in a Burkitt lymphoma cell line (Namalwa).  The techniques demonstrated are useful for a wide range of siRNA-based experiments on both adherent and suspension cells.  We will also show how to streamline cell counting with the TC10 automated cell counter, how to electroporate multiple samples simultaneously using the MXcell electroporation system, and how to simultaneously assess RNA quality and quantity with the Experion automated electrophoresis system.

This procedure describes a quick and easy workflow to introduce siRNA into difficult to transfect cell lines and follow gene expression by real-time PCR. Use of an automated cell counter, multi-well electroporation plate, and automated electrophoresis station provide quick and reliable results without the need for expensive robotic handling.

The use of siRNA mediated gene knockdown is continuing to be an important tool in studies of gene expression.  siRNA studies are being conducted not only ...

Large Scale Zebrafish-Based In vivo Small Molecule Screen

Given their small embryo size, rapid development, transparency, fecundity, and numerous molecular, morphological and physiological similarities to mammals, zebrafish has emerged as a powerful in vivo platform for phenotype-based drug screens and chemical genetic analysis. Here, we demonstrate a simple, practical method for large-scale screening of small molecules using zebrafish embryos.

Large Scale Zebrafish-Based In vivo Small Molecule Screen

Zebrafish has emerged as a powerful in vivo platform for phenotype-based drug screens and chemical genetic analysis. Here, we demonstrate a simple, practical method for large-scale screening of small molecules using zebrafish embryos.

Given their small embryo size, rapid development, transparency, fecundity, and numerous molecular, morphological and physiological similarities to ...

RNAi Screening to Identify Postembryonic Phenotypes in C. elegans

C. elegans has proven to be a valuable model system for the discovery and functional characterization of many genes and gene pathways1. More sophisticated tools and resources for studies in this system are facilitating continued discovery of genes with more subtle phenotypes or roles. 
Here we present a generalized protocol we adapted for identifying C. elegans genes with postembryonic phenotypes of interest using RNAi2. This procedure is easily modified to assay the phenotype of choice, whether by light or fluorescence optics on a dissecting or compound microscope. This screening protocol capitalizes on the physical assets of the organism and molecular tools the C. elegans research community has produced. As an example, we demonstrate the use of an integrated transgene that expresses a fluorescent product in an RNAi screen to identify genes required for the normal localization of this product in late stage larvae and adults. First, we used a commercially available genomic RNAi library with full-length cDNA inserts. This library facilitates the rapid identification of multiple candidates by RNAi reduction of the candidate gene product. Second, we generated an integrated transgene that expresses our fluorecently tagged protein of interest in an RNAi-sensitive background. Third, by exposing hatched animals to RNAi, this screen permits identification of gene products that have a vital embryonic role that would otherwise mask a post-embryonic role in regulating the protein of interest. Lastly, this screen uses a compound microscope equipped for single cell resolution.

RNAi Screening to Identify Postembryonic Phenotypes in C. elegans

We describe a sensitized method to identify postembryonic regulators of protein expression and localization in C. elegans using an RNAi-based genomic screen and an integrated transgene that expresses a functional, fluorescently tagged protein.

C. elegans has proven to be a valuable model system for the discovery and functional characterization of many genes and gene pathways1. More sophisticated ...

Using SecM Arrest Sequence as a Tool to Isolate Ribosome Bound Polypeptides

Extensive research has provided ample evidences suggesting that protein folding in the cell is a co-translational process1-5. However, the exact pathway that polypeptide chain follows during co-translational folding to achieve its functional form is still an enigma. In order to understand this process and to determine the exact conformation of the co-translational folding intermediates, it is essential to develop techniques that allow the isolation of RNCs carrying nascent chains of predetermined sizes to allow their further structural analysis.
SecM (secretion monitor) is a 170 amino acid E. coli protein that regulates expression of the downstream SecA (secretion driving) ATPase in the secM-secA operon6. Nakatogawa and Ito originally found that a 17 amino acid long sequence (150-FSTPVWISQAQGIRAGP-166) in the C-terminal region of the SecM protein is sufficient and necessary to cause stalling of SecM elongation at Gly165, thereby producing peptidyl-glycyl-tRNA stably bound to the ribosomal P-site7-9. More importantly, it was found that this 17 amino acid long sequence can be fused to the C-terminus of virtually any full-length and/or truncated protein thus allowing the production of RNCs carrying nascent chains of predetermined sizes7. Thus, when fused or inserted into the target protein, SecM stalling sequence produces arrest of the polypeptide chain elongation and generates stable RNCs both in vivo in E. coli cells and in vitro in a cell-free system. Sucrose gradient centrifugation is further utilized to isolate RNCs.
The isolated RNCs can be used to analyze structural and functional features of the co-translational folding intermediates. Recently, this technique has been successfully used to gain insights into the structure of several ribosome bound nascent chains10,11. Here we describe the isolation of bovine Gamma-B Crystallin RNCs fused to SecM and generated in an in vitro translation system.

We describe here a technique that is now routinely used to isolate stably bound ribosome nascent chain complexes (RNCs). This technique takes advantage of the discovery that a 17 amino acid long SecM "arrest sequence" can halt translation elongation in a prokaryotic (E. coli) system, when inserted into (or fused to the C-terminus) of virtually any protein.

Extensive research has provided ample evidences suggesting that protein folding in the cell is a co-translational process1-5. However, the exact pathway ...

Using RNA-mediated Interference Feeding Strategy to Screen for Genes Involved in Body Size Regulation in the Nematode C. elegans

Double-strand RNA-mediated interference (RNAi) is an effective strategy to knock down target gene expression1-3. It has been applied to many model systems including plants, invertebrates and vertebrates. There are various methods to achieve RNAi in vivo4,5. For example, the target gene may be transformed into an RNAi vector, and then either permanently or transiently transformed into cell lines or primary cells to achieve gene knockdown effects; alternatively synthesized double-strand oligonucleotides from specific target genes (RNAi oligos) may be transiently transformed into cell lines or primary cells to silence target genes; or synthesized double-strand RNA molecules may be microinjected into an organism. Since the nematode C. elegans uses bacteria as a food source, feeding the animals with bacteria expressing double-strand RNA against target genes provides a viable strategy6. Here we present an RNAi feeding method to score body size phenotype. Body size in C. elegans is regulated primarily by the TGF- &beta; - like ligand DBL-1, so this assay is appropriate for identification of TGF-&beta; signaling components7. We used different strains including two RNAi hypersensitive strains to repeat the RNAi feeding experiments. Our results showed that rrf-3 strain gave us the best expected RNAi phenotype. The method is easy to perform, reproducible, and easily quantified. Furthermore, our protocol minimizes the use of specialized equipment, so it is suitable for smaller laboratories or those at predominantly undergraduate institutions.

Using RNA-mediated Interference Feeding Strategy to Screen for Genes Involved in Body Size Regulation in the Nematode C. elegans

We demonstrate how to use the RNAi feeding technique to knock down target genes and score body size phenotype in C. elegans. This method could be used for a large scale screen to identify potential genetic components of interest, such as those involved in body size regulation by DBL-1/TGF-&beta; signaling.

Double-strand RNA-mediated interference (RNAi) is an effective strategy to knock down target gene expression1-3. It has been applied to many model systems ...

C. elegans Chemotaxis Assay

Many organisms use chemotaxis to seek out food sources, avoid noxious substances, and find mates. Caenorhabditis elegans has impressive chemotaxis behavior.
 The premise behind testing the response of the worms to an odorant is to place them in an area and observe the movement evoked in response to an odorant. Even with the many available assays, optimizing worm starting location relative to both the control and test areas, while minimizing the interaction of worms with each other, while maintaining a significant sample size remains a work in progress 1-10. The method described here aims to address these issues by modifying the assay developed by Bargmann et al.1. A Petri dish is divided into four quadrants, two opposite quadrants marked "Test" and two are designated "Control". Anesthetic is placed in all test and control sites. The worms are placed in the center of the plate with a circle marked around the origin to ensure that non-motile worms will be ignored. Utilizing a four-quadrant system rather than one 2 or two 1 eliminates bias in the movement of the worms, as they are equidistant from test and control samples, regardless of which side of the origin they began. This circumvents the problem of worms being forced to travel through a cluster of other worms to respond to an odorant, which can delay worms or force them to take a more circuitous route, yielding an incorrect interpretation of their intended path. This method also shows practical advantages by having a larger sample size and allowing the researcher to run the assay unattended and score the worms once the allotted time has expired.

C. elegans Chemotaxis Assay

A method of quantitatively evaluating the chemotactic response of Caenorhabditis elegans is described. A chemotactic index (CI) was employed as a way to precisely evaluate the response of worms to certain targets, and serve as a platform of comparison between strains and compounds of interest.

Many organisms use chemotaxis to seek out food sources, avoid noxious substances, and find mates.  Caenorhabditis elegans has impressive chemotaxis ...

Antibody Staining in C. Elegans Using &quot;Freeze-Cracking&quot;

To stain C. elegans with antibodies, the relatively impermeable cuticle must be bypassed by chemical or mechanical methods. "Freeze-cracking" is one method used to physically pull the cuticle from nematodes by compressing nematodes between two adherent slides, freezing them, and pulling the slides apart. Freeze-cracking provides a simple and rapid way to gain access to the tissues without chemical treatment and can be used with a variety of fixatives. However, it leads to the loss of many of the specimens and the required compression mechanically distorts the sample. Practice is required to maximize recovery of samples with good morphology. Freeze-cracking can be optimized for specific fixation conditions, recovery of samples, or low non-specific staining, but not for all parameters at once. For antibodies that require very hard fixation conditions and tolerate the chemical treatments needed to chemically permeabilize the cuticle, treatment of intact nematodes in solution may be preferred. If the antibody requires a lighter fix or if the optimum fixation conditions are unknown, freeze-cracking provides a very useful way to rapidly assay the antibody and can yield specific subcellular and cellular localization information for the antigen of interest.

Antibody Staining in C. Elegans Using &quot;Freeze-Cracking&quot;

"Freeze-cracking," a method for exposing the inner tissues of the nematode C. elegans to antibodies for protein localization, is demonstrated.

To stain C.  elegans with antibodies, the relatively impermeable cuticle must be  bypassed by chemical or mechanical methods.  "Freeze-cracking" is one ...

Methods to Assess Subcellular Compartments of Muscle in C. elegans

Muscle is a dynamic tissue that responds to changes in nutrition, exercise, and disease state. The loss of muscle mass and function with disease and age are significant public health burdens. We currently understand little about the genetic regulation of muscle health with disease or age. The nematode C. elegans is an established model for understanding the genomic regulation of biological processes of interest. This worm&#8217;s body wall muscles display a large degree of homology with the muscles of higher metazoan species. Since C. elegans is a transparent organism, the localization of GFP to mitochondria and sarcomeres allows visualization of these structures in vivo. Similarly, feeding animals cationic dyes, which accumulate based on the existence of a mitochondrial membrane potential, allows the assessment of mitochondrial function in vivo. These methods, as well as assessment of muscle protein homeostasis, are combined with assessment of whole animal muscle function, in the form of movement assays, to allow correlation of sub-cellular defects with functional measures of muscle performance. Thus, C. elegans provides a powerful platform with which to assess the impact of mutations, gene knockdown, and/or chemical compounds upon muscle structure and function. Lastly, as GFP, cationic dyes, and movement assays are assessed non-invasively, prospective studies of muscle structure and function can be conducted across the whole life course and this at present cannot be easily investigated in vivo in any other organism.

Methods to Assess Subcellular Compartments of Muscle in C. elegans

Skeletal muscle is essential for locomotion and is the bodies&#8217; main protein store. Muscle health measurements within C. elegans are described. Prospective changes to muscle structure and function are assessed using localized GFP and cationic dyes.

Muscle is a dynamic tissue that responds to changes in nutrition, exercise, and disease state. The loss of muscle mass and function with disease and age ...