We thank Susan Farmer and the staff of the UAB zebrafish research facility for zebrafish care. Funding provided by start-up funds from the Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology.

NOTE: This protocol was approved by the University of Alabama at Birmingham Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee.
1. Zebrafish Breeding and Egg Collections
<ol>
	<li>Three days before beginning chemical exposures, assemble breeding tanks with dividers to separate males and females. Fill each tank halfway with aquaculture system water. Using a net, transfer Tg(5xERE:GFP)c262/c262 fish to breeding tanks, placing 2 males and 3 females in each tank separated by a divider. Place a lid on each tank and label with date and strains to be crossed.</li>
	<li>The following morning, remove all barriers and tilt baffles to create a shallow area at one end of the breeding tank. Allow zebrafish to mate, collecting embryos at 10 min&#160;intervals to ensure precise developmental staging. Clean eggs by rinsing through a tea strainer using E3B medium and gently flush embryos into Petri dishes. Return adult fish to permanent tanks.</li>
	<li>Using a dissecting microscope, sort, count, and remove any unfertilized, abnormal or damaged embryos. Place embryos in Petri dishes in E3B medium and house at 28.5 &#176;C with a 14:10 light:dark cycle. Embryo density can affect development. Place no more than 100 embryos in a 100 x 35 mm dish and no more than 50 embryos in a 60 x 15 mm dish.</li>
	<li>By 24 hpf, replace media with E3B containing 200 &#956;M 1-phenyl 2-thiourea (PTU). PTU prevents pigment formation and keeps zebrafish embryos and larvae transparent for improved image clarity. CAUTION: concentrated PTU stock is hazardous; wear gloves when making E3B+PTU solution.</li>
	<li>At 1 day post fertilization (dpf), manually remove the chorion from each embryo using fine forceps. The chorion does not appear to affect penetration of estrogens, however removal enhances image clarity. There is no need to remove chorions from the media. NOTE: As an alternative to manual dechorionation, batches of embryos can be chemically dechorionated using 1 mg/ml&#160;pronase treatment, as previously described11.</li>
</ol>
2. Chemical Treatment of Embryos
<ol>
	<li>The day before treatment, prepare stock solutions of each chemical at 1,000-fold concentration in DMSO (or appropriate solvent). For example, to expose embryos to 10 &#956;M bisphenol A (BPA), prepare a 10 mM BPA stock solution in 100% DMSO. This ensures uniform DMSO concentration in each treatment and allows a non-toxic 1:1,000 dilution of DMSO to serve as a vehicle control. Store stock solutions at -20 &#176;C. For this protocol, embryos will be exposed to 1 &#956;M and 10&#160;&#956;M BPA, 18.5 nM and 1.85 &#956;M genistein, 367 nM estradiol (positive control) and vehicle (0.1% DMSO, negative control). 
	CAUTION: Chemicals such as BPA and estradiol are hazardous and can have deleterious effects on the human fetus. Handle endocrine disruptors with care and always use proper personal protective equipment.</li>
	<li>On the day of treatment, thaw prepared stock chemical solutions. Dilute 1:1,000 by pipetting 1 ml&#160;E3B + PTU into a 1.5 ml&#160;microcentrifuge tube and adding 1 &#956;l&#160;of stock chemical solution. Vortex vigorously. Dilute DMSO 1:1,000 into E3B + PTU as a vehicle control. Use 1 mL E3B + PTU in a 1.5 ml&#160;microcentrifuge tube as an untreated control.</li>
	<li>Using a large bore plastic transfer pipette, transfer embryos from Petri dishes into each well of a 96-well plate, 3 embryos per well, 3 wells per condition. To prevent evaporation during prolonged treatment, omit embryos from outer rows and columns of the plate (rows A and E, columns 1 and 12). Outer wells can be filled with 300 &#956;l of E3B + PTU. Label the plate lid appropriately.</li>
	<li>Remove media from each well with a fine tipped plastic transfer pipette. Work quickly to avoid drying out the embryos.</li>
	<li>Add 200 &#956;l&#160;of treatment solution into corresponding well. Place the lid underneath the plate as a guide to ensure addition of treatments into the proper wells. Vortex each tube prior to pipetting to distribute the chemical in solution. Visually confirm each embryo is in the treatment solution. If embryos are on the side of the well, use a clean transfer pipet to wash them into the well with the treatment solution.</li>
	<li>Place the plate in the incubator at 28.5 &#176;C. Embryos will be analyzed for fluorescence at 72 hpf.</li>
</ol>
3. Automated Imaging of Embryos in 96-well Plates
<ol>
	<li>Anesthetize embryos by adding 10 &#956;l of 4 mg/ml tricaine to each well. 
	NOTE: Anesthetize embryos prior to imaging. At 24-96 hpf, zebrafish exhibit spontaneous movement and a startle response to the changing light source during image capture. Anesthetizing embryos reduces movement during imaging.</li>
	<li>Place the 96-well plate in the motorized stage and calibrate the stage. Using Zeiss Zen Blue 2011 software for microscopy automation and control, select the sample carrier option and select multiwell 96. Select calibrate. Follow the stepwise directions to calibrate the stage. 
	NOTE: Do not uncheck the tiles button after this step. If the tiles button is unchecked, calibration settings may be lost and the 96-well plate will need to be recalibrated.</li>
	<li>Using a 10x objective and the brightfield (BF) setting, identify a positive control embryo and set exposure settings appropriately for BF and GFP channels, making sure that fluorescence signal is not saturating the camera. Focus on a single embryo and program the microscope to acquire 3 total Z-sections, one image 50 &#956;m above and one 50 &#956;m below the current focal plane. 
	NOTE: Because different tissues occupy different focal planes, this will ensure that for each zebrafish images are captured with the heart and liver in focus.</li>
	<li>Set the software parameters to acquire a tiled image using GFP and BF channels. Under the acquisition tab, select advanced setup. Select tile regions, then tiles. Choose the circle well option. 
	NOTE: Tiling is used to create a composite image of each well. A single field-of-view captures only a small portion of each well. The tiling function can automatically capture multiple adjacent fields-of-view from each well, creating a composite image of the entire well. It is therefore possible to automatically capture 96 composite images per plate, where each composite image contains several dozen individual images from a single well.</li>
	<li>Select carrier and fill factor 90%. Selecting a fill factor of 90% will capture multiple images of the selected wells such that 90% of the area of each well will be visible in the composite image. 
	NOTE: When selecting fill factor, a diagram will be displayed representing the area to be imaged. Select a percentage that will include the area of the well that is appropriate for the experiment.</li>
	<li>Under options, select the amount of overlap desired. 
	NOTE: When stitching together tiles for a single representative image, an overlap of 5-10% allows for a smooth seam between images. However, if image stitching is unnecessary, using a 0% overlap will reduce imaging time. Using 90% fill factor and 5% overlap, a composite image of a single well consists of 59 individual images.</li>
	<li>Start imaging. The microscope will automatically acquire images.</li>
	<li>Manually inspect composite images of each well for tissue-specific fluorescence (Figure 1).</li>
	<li>NOTE: It is best to start with the positive control to confirm that the chemical exposure worked prior to observing experimental treatment wells.</li>
</ol>
4. Manual Image Capture of Embryos in 96-well Plate
NOTE: To confirm results, use a 20x long working distance objective to acquire more detailed images manually (Figure 2).
<ol>
	<li>Using a 20x objective and the brightfield (BF) setting, identify a positive control embryo and set exposure settings for BF and GFP channels appropriately, making sure that fluorescence signal is not saturating the camera.</li>
	<li>Identify individual embryos and capture images manually. 
	NOTE: Once the exposure settings have been selected for the positive control embryo, do not alter the settings. This allows a comparison of the fluorescence intensity as each image is captured under uniform conditions.</li>
</ol>

<ol>
	<li>Molina, G., Watkins, S., Tsang, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Generation+of+FGF+reporter+transgenic+zebrafish+and+their+utility+in+chemical+screens.">Generation of FGF reporter transgenic zebrafish and their utility in chemical screens.</a> BMC Developmental Biology. 7, 62 (2007).</li><li>Perz-Edwards, A., Hardison, N. L., Linney, E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Retinoic+acid-mediated+gene+expression+in+transgenic+reporter+zebrafish.">Retinoic acid-mediated gene expression in transgenic reporter zebrafish.</a> Developmental Biology. , 89-101 (2001).</li><li>Gorelick, D. A., Halpern, M. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Visualization+of+Estrogen+Receptor+Transcriptional+Activation+in+Zebrafish.">Visualization of Estrogen Receptor Transcriptional Activation in Zebrafish.</a> Endocrinology. 152, 2690-2703 (2011).</li><li>Tsang, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Zebrafish:+A+tool+for+chemical+screens.">Zebrafish: A tool for chemical screens.</a> Birth Defects Research Part C: Embryo Today: Reviews. 90, 185-192 (2010).</li><li>Peravali, R., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Automated+feature+detection+and+imaging+for+high-resolution+screening+of+zebrafish+embryos.">Automated feature detection and imaging for high-resolution screening of zebrafish embryos.</a> Biotechniques. 50, 319-324 (2011).</li><li>Walker, S. L., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Automated+reporter+quantification+in+vivo:+high-throughput+screening+method+for+reporter-based+assays+in+zebrafish.">Automated reporter quantification in vivo: high-throughput screening method for reporter-based assays in zebrafish.</a> PLoS One. 7, (2012).</li><li>Vogt, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Automated+image-based+phenotypic+analysis+in+zebrafish+embryos.">Automated image-based phenotypic analysis in zebrafish embryos.</a> Developmental Dynamics. 238, 656-663 (2009).</li><li>Vogt, A., Codore, H., Day, B. W., Hukriede, N. A., Tsang, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Development+of+automated+imaging+and+analysis+for+zebrafish+chemical+screens.">Development of automated imaging and analysis for zebrafish chemical screens.</a> J. Vis. Exp. , (2010).</li><li>Gruber, C. J., Gruber, D. M., Gruber, I. M., Wieser, F., Huber, J. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Anatomy+of+the+estrogen+response+element.">Anatomy of the estrogen response element.</a> Trends in Endocrinology and Metabolism. 15, 73-78 (2004).</li><li>Rovira, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Chemical+screen+identifies+FDA-approved+drugs+and+target+pathways+that+induce+precocious+pancreatic+endocrine+differentiation.">Chemical screen identifies FDA-approved drugs and target pathways that induce precocious pancreatic endocrine differentiation.</a> Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA. 108, 19264-19269 (2011).</li><li>Westerfield, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+Zebrafish+Book:+A+guide+for+the+laboratory+use+of+zebrafish+(Danio+rerio).">The Zebrafish Book: A guide for the laboratory use of zebrafish (Danio rerio).</a> , (2000).</li></ol>

The authors have no competing financial interests.

This protocol describes a straightforward method to automatically image tissue-specific fluorescence in zebrafish embryos. The protocol was developed using a Zeiss Axio Observer. Z1 with Zen Blue 2011 software, however the technique can be adapted using any inverted microscope with a motorized stage and microscope control software that can perform tiling to create composite images. Equipping an inverted microscope with a motorized stage can provide a practical, less expensive alternative to purchasing specialized equipme...

Transgenic zebrafish have been developed that allow for the direct visualization of activity in signaling pathways, such as fibroblast growth factors1, retinoic acid2 and estrogens3, in live embryos. Such tools enable screening for chemicals that perturb signaling pathways (assayed as change in fluorescence intensity) or for chemicals that modulate signaling in a tissue-specific manner (change in fluorescence localization)4. Automated image capture increases the throughput of chemical screens dramatically5,6. Screens that automatically assay fluorescence in live zebrafish often rely on expensive, specialized equipment. So-called high-content screening provides the benefit of high resolution, quantitative imaging but at the cost of using specialized plate readers equipped for confocal microscopy7,8. The goal of this method is to automatically assay tissue-specific fluorescence in zebrafish embryos in a 96-well plate using a standard epifluorescence microscope. Tissue-specific fluorescence can be distinguished using this technique and may be a reasonable approach for laboratories that lack access to specialized plate readers or high-content screening equipment.
In this protocol, we use automated imaging to detect tissue-specific estrogen receptor (ER) agonists in live zebrafish at 3 days post fertilization (dpf). The transgenic line Tg(5xERE:GFP)c262/c262 contains 5 tandem estrogen response element DNA sequences (ERE) upstream of green fluorescent protein (GFP)3. In the absence of ligand, ERs are normally inactive. Ligand binding triggers a conformational change, allowing receptors to bind ERE DNA and regulate transcription9. 5xERE:GFP fish can be used to screen chemical libraries for ER modulators and can be used to screen environmental water samples for estrogenic contaminants.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width:885px;" width="886">
	<colgroup>
		<col />
		<col />
		<col />
		<col />
	</colgroup>
	<tbody>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">Name of Material/ Equipment</td>
			<td style="width:100px;">Company</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">Catalog Number</td>
			<td style="width:451px;">Comments/Description</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">Plastic transfer pipettes; wide bore</td>
			<td style="width:100px;">Fisher</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">13-711-23</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">Plastic transfer pipettes; fine tip</td>
			<td style="width:100px;">Fisher</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">13-711-26</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">96-well, round, flat bottom plates</td>
			<td style="width:100px;">Fisher</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">21-377-203</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">100 x 35mm paltes</td>
			<td style="width:100px;">Fisher</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">08-757-100D</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">35 x 60mm plates</td>
			<td style="width:100px;">Fisher</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">08-757-100B</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">Dumont #5 fine forceps</td>
			<td style="width:100px;">Fine Science Tools</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">11254-20</td>
			<td>tip dimensions 0.05 x 0.01 mm, for manually removing chorions from embryos</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Tricane methanesulfonate</td>
			<td style="width:100px;">Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">A5040-25G</td>
			<td>see Zebrafish Book for recipe (http://zfin.org/zf_info/zfbook/chapt10.html#wptohtml63)&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">1-phenyl 2-thiourea (PTU)</td>
			<td style="width:100px;">Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">P7629-10G</td>
			<td>Prepare 20 mM stock (100x) and use at 200 &#956;M in E3B&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">Zeiss Axio Observer Z1</td>
			<td style="width:100px;">Carl Zeiss</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td style="width:451px;">Protocol requires an inverted fluorescence microscope with a motorized stage</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">20x long working distance objective</td>
			<td style="width:100px;">Carl Zeiss</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td>We use an objective with 0.4 NA and 8.4 mm working distance</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Axiocam HRm digital camera</td>
			<td style="width:100px;">Carl Zeiss</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">ZenBlue 2011 microscope control software</td>
			<td style="width:100px;">Carl Zeiss</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td style="width:451px;">Protocol requires microscopy automation and control software to enable capturing of tiled images using a motorized stage</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Methylene Blue</td>
			<td style="width:100px;">Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>&#160;MB-1; 25 grams</td>
			<td>make 2% solution in RO water for use in E3B (below)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="273">
			<td height="273" style="height:273px;">E3B</td>
			<td style="width:100px;"></td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td style="width:451px;">60X E3 SOLUTION: 
			NaCl&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; - 17.2 grams 
			KCl&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; - 0.76 grams 
			CaCl2-2H2O&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; - 2.9 grams 
			MgSO4-7H2O&#160; - 4.9 grams or MgSO4 &#8211; 2.39 grams 
			Dissolve in 1 liter Milli-Q water; store in sterile 1 liter bottle. 
			 
			1X E3B SOLUTION FOR ZEBRAFISH: 
			60X E3&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; 150mls 
			2% methylene blue&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; 100&#956;l&#160; 
			Bring to 9 liters with Milli-Q water 
			&#160;</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

semi-automated imaging of tissue-specific fluorescence in zebrafish embryos

Zebrafish embryos are a powerful tool for large-scale screening of small molecules. Transgenic zebrafish that express fluorescent reporter proteins are frequently used to identify chemicals that modulate gene expression. Chemical screens that assay fluorescence in live zebrafish often rely on expensive, specialized equipment for high content screening. We describe a procedure using a standard epifluorescence microscope with a motorized stage to automatically image zebrafish embryos and detect tissue-specific fluorescence. Using transgenic zebrafish that report estrogen receptor activity via expression of GFP, we developed a semi-automated procedure to screen for estrogen receptor ligands that activate the reporter in a tissue-specific manner. In this video we describe procedures for arraying zebrafish embryos at 24-48 hours post fertilization (hpf) in a 96-well plate and adding small molecules that bind estrogen receptors. At 72-96 hpf, images of each well from the entire plate are automatically collected and manually inspected for tissue-specific fluorescence. This protocol demonstrates the ability to detect estrogens that activate receptors in heart valves but not in liver.

Figure 1 shows composite images from individual wells of a 96-well plate. Each composite image is composed of 59 individual images with 5% image overlap. Note that the live zebrafish are oriented randomly within each well, yet we are able to distinguish fluorescence in the heart from the liver. Brightfield images are useful as references to assess zebrafish orientation and visualize morphological abnormalities (Figures 1A and&#160;1C). Automated imaging using a 10x objective is used to s...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Semi-automated Imaging of Tissue-specific Fluorescence in Zebrafish Embryos at JoVE.com

Semi-automated Imaging of Tissue-specific Fluorescence in Zebrafish Embryos

Described here is a protocol for semi-automated imaging of tissue-specific fluorescence in zebrafish embryos.

Zebrafish embryos are a powerful tool for large-scale screening of small molecules. Transgenic zebrafish that express fluorescent reporter proteins are ...

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9.5K Views.  University of Alabama at Birmingham. Described here is a protocol for semi-automated imaging of tissue-specific fluorescence in zebrafish embryos.

Video: Semi-automated Imaging of Tissue-specific Fluorescence in Zebrafish Embryos

Microinjection of mRNA and Morpholino Antisense Oligonucleotides in Zebrafish Embryos.

An essential tool for investigating the role of a gene during development is the ability to perform gene knockdown, overexpression, and misexpression studies. In zebrafish (Danio rerio), microinjection of RNA, DNA, proteins, antisense oligonucleotides and other small molecules into the developing embryo provides researchers a quick and robust assay for exploring gene function in vivo. In this video-article, we will demonstrate how to prepare and microinject in vitro synthesized EGFP mRNA and a translational-blocking morpholino oligo against pkd2, a gene associated with autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease (ADPKD), into 1-cell stage zebrafish embryos. We will then analyze the success of the mRNA and morpholino microinjections by verifying GFP expression and phenotype analysis. Broad applications of this technique include generating transgenic animals and germ-line chimeras, cell-fate mapping and gene screening. Herein we describe a protocol for overexpression of EGFP and knockdown of pkd2 by mRNA and morpholino oligonucleotide injection.

Microinjection is a well-established and effective method for introducing foreign substances into fertilized zebrafish embryos. Here, we demonstrate a robust microinjection technique for performing mRNA overexpression, and morpholino oligonucleotide gene knockdown studies in zebrafish.

An essential tool for investigating the role of a gene during development is the ability to perform gene knockdown, overexpression, and misexpression ...

Two-photon axotomy and time-lapse confocal imaging in live zebrafish embryos

Zebrafish have long been utilized to study the cellular and molecular mechanisms of development by time-lapse imaging of the living transparent embryo. Here we describe a method to mount zebrafish embryos for long-term imaging and demonstrate how to automate the capture of time-lapse images using a confocal microscope. We also describe a method to create controlled, precise damage to individual branches of peripheral sensory axons in zebrafish using the focused power of a femtosecond laser mounted on a two-photon microscope. The parameters for successful two-photon axotomy must be optimized for each microscope. We will demonstrate two-photon axotomy on both a custom built two-photon microscope and a Zeiss 510 confocal/two-photon to provide two examples.

Zebrafish trigeminal sensory neurons can be visualized in a transgenic line expressing GFP driven by a sensory neuron specific promoter 1. We have adapted this zebrafish trigeminal model to directly observe sensory axon regeneration in living zebrafish embryos. Embryos are anesthetized with tricaine and positioned within a drop of agarose as it solidifies. Immobilized embryos are sealed within an imaging chamber filled with phenylthiourea (PTU) Ringers. We have found that embryos can be continuously imaged in these chambers for 12-48 hours. A single confocal image is then captured to determine the desired site of axotomy. The region of interest is located on the two-photon microscope by imaging the sensory axons under low, non-damaging power. After zooming in on the desired site of axotomy, the power is increased and a single scan of that defined region is sufficient to sever the axon. Multiple location time-lapse imaging is then set up on a confocal microscope to directly observe axonal recovery from injury.

Here we describe a method for mounting zebrafish embryos for long-term imaging, two-photon imaging and tissue-damage techniques, and time-lapse confocal imaging.

Zebrafish have long been utilized to study the cellular and molecular mechanisms of development by time-lapse imaging of the living transparent embryo.  ...

Semi-automated Optical Heartbeat Analysis of Small Hearts

We have developed a method for analyzing high speed optical recordings from Drosophila, zebrafish and embryonic mouse hearts (Fink, et. al., 2009). Our Semi-automatic Optical Heartbeat Analysis (SOHA) uses a novel movement detection algorithm that is able to detect cardiac movements associated with individual contractile and relaxation events. The program provides a host of physiologically relevant readouts including systolic and diastolic intervals, heart rate, as well as qualitative and quantitative measures of heartbeat arrhythmicity. The program also calculates heart diameter measurements during both diastole and systole from which fractional shortening and fractional area changes are calculated. Output is provided as a digital file compatible with most spreadsheet programs. Measurements are made for every heartbeat in a record increasing the statistical power of the output. We demonstrate each of the steps where user input is required and show the application of our methodology to the analysis of heart function in all three genetically tractable heart models.

We have developed a Semi-automated Optical Heartbeat Analysis method (SOHA) for analyzing high speed optical recordings from Drosophila, zebrafish and embryonic mouse hearts. We demonstrate the application of our methodology to the analysis of heart function in fruit fly and embryonic mouse hearts.

We have developed a method for analyzing high speed optical recordings from Drosophila, zebrafish and embryonic mouse hearts (Fink, et. al., 2009). Our ...

Time-lapse Imaging of Mitosis After siRNA Transfection

Changes in cellular organization and chromosome dynamics that occur during mitosis are tightly coordinated to ensure accurate inheritance of genomic and cellular content. Hallmark events of mitosis, such as chromosome movement, can be readily tracked on an individual cell basis using time-lapse fluorescence microscopy of mammalian cell lines expressing specific GFP-tagged proteins. In combination with RNAi-based depletion, this can be a powerful method for pinpointing the stage(s) of mitosis where defects occur after levels of a particular protein have been lowered. In this protocol, we present a basic method for assessing the effect of depleting a potential mitotic regulatory protein on the timing of mitosis. Cells are transfected with siRNA, placed in a stage-top incubation chamber, and imaged using an automated fluorescence microscope. We describe how to use software to set up a time-lapse experiment, how to process the image sequences to make either still-image montages or movies, and how to quantify and analyze the timing of mitotic stages using a cell-line expressing mCherry-tagged histone H2B. Finally, we discuss important considerations for designing a time-lapse experiment. This strategy is complementary to other approaches and offers the advantages of 1) sensitivity to changes in kinetics that might not be observed when looking at cells as a population and 2) analysis of mitosis without the need to synchronize the cell cycle using drug treatments. The visual information from such imaging experiments not only allows the sub-stages of mitosis to be assessed, but can also provide unexpected insight that would not be apparent from cell cycle analysis by FACS.

Here we describe a basic protocol to image and quantify the mitotic timing of live mammalian tissue culture cells after siRNA transfection.

Changes in cellular organization and chromosome dynamics that occur during mitosis are tightly coordinated to ensure accurate inheritance of genomic and ...

Two-Photon-Based Photoactivation in Live Zebrafish Embryos

Photoactivation of target compounds in a living organism has proven a valuable approach to investigate various biological processes such as embryonic development, cellular signaling and adult physiology. In this respect, the use of multi-photon microscopy enables quantitative photoactivation of a given light responsive agent in deep tissues at a single cell resolution. As zebrafish embryos are optically transparent, their development can be monitored in vivo. These traits make the zebrafish a perfect model organism for controlling the activity of a variety of chemical agents and proteins by focused light. Here we describe the use of two-photon microscopy to induce the activation of chemically caged fluorescein, which in turn allows us to follow cell's destiny in live zebrafish embryos. We use embryos expressing a live genetic landmark (GFP) to locate and precisely target any cells of interest. This procedure can be similarly used for precise light induced activation of proteins, hormones, small molecules and other caged compounds.

Multiphoton microscopy allows control of low energy photons with deep optical penetration and reduced phototoxicity. We describe the use of this technology for live cell labeling in zebrafish embryos. This protocol can be readily adapted for photo-induction of various light-responsive molecules.

Photoactivation of target compounds in a living organism has proven a valuable approach to investigate various biological processes such as embryonic ...

Transplantation of GFP-expressing Blastomeres for Live Imaging of Retinal and Brain Development in Chimeric Zebrafish Embryos

Cells change extensively in their locations and property during embryogenesis. These changes are regulated by the interactions between the cells and their environment. Chimeric embryos, which are composed of cells of different genetic background, are great tools to study the cell-cell interactions mediated by genes of interest. The embryonic transparency of zebrafish at early developmental stages permits direct visualization of the morphogenesis of tissues and organs at the cellular level. Here, we demonstrate a protocol to generate chimeric retinas and brains in zebrafish embryos and to perform live imaging of the donor cells. The protocol covers the preparation of transplantation needles, the transplantation of GFP-expressing donor blastomeres to GFP-negative hosts, and the examination of donor cell behavior under live confocal microscopy. With slight modifications, this protocol can also be used to study the embryonic development of other tissues and organs in zebrafish. The advantages of using GFP to label donor cells are also discussed. 

We demonstrate a protocol to generate chimeric zebrafish embryos for live imaging cellular behavior during embryogenesis.

Cells change extensively in their locations and property during embryogenesis. These changes are regulated by the interactions between the cells and their ...

Imaging Cell Shape Change in Living Drosophila Embryos

The developing Drosophila melanogaster embryo undergoes a number of cell shape changes that are highly amenable to live confocal imaging. Cell shape changes in the fly are analogous to those in higher organisms, and they drive tissue morphogenesis. So, in many cases, their study has direct implications for understanding human disease (Table 1)1-5. On the sub-cellular scale, these cell shape changes are the product of activities ranging from gene expression to signal transduction, cell polarity, cytoskeletal remodeling and membrane trafficking. Thus, the Drosophila embryo provides not only the context to evaluate cell shape changes as they relate to tissue morphogenesis, but also offers a completely physiological environment to study the sub-cellular activities that shape cells.
The protocol described here is designed to image a specific cell shape change called cellularization. Cellularization is a process of dramatic plasma membrane growth, and it ultimately converts the syncytial embryo into the cellular blastoderm. That is, at interphase of mitotic cycle 14, the plasma membrane simultaneously invaginates around each of ~6000 cortically anchored nuclei to generate a sheet of primary epithelial cells. Counter to previous suggestions, cellularization is not driven by Myosin-2 contractility6, but is instead fueled largely by exocytosis of membrane from internal stores7. Thus, cellularization is an excellent system for studying membrane trafficking during cell shape changes that require plasma membrane invagination or expansion, such as cytokinesis or transverse-tubule (T-tubule) morphogenesis in muscle.
Note that this protocol is easily applied to the imaging of other cell shape changes in the fly embryo, and only requires slight adaptations such as changing the stage of embryo collection, or using "embryo glue" to mount the embryo in a specific orientation (Table 1)8-19. In all cases, the workflow is basically the same (Figure 1). Standard methods for cloning and Drosophila transgenesis are used to prepare stable fly stocks that express a protein of interest, fused to Green Fluorescent Protein (GFP) or its variants, and these flies provide a renewable source of embryos. Alternatively, fluorescent proteins/probes are directly introduced into fly embryos via straightforward micro-injection techniques9-10. Then, depending on the developmental event and cell shape change to be imaged, embryos are collected and staged by morphology on a dissecting microscope, and finally positioned and mounted for time-lapse imaging on a confocal microscope.

Imaging Cell Shape Change in Living Drosophila Embryos

Early development of the fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster, is characterized by a number of cell shape changes that are well suited for imaging approaches. This article will describe basic tools and methods required for live confocal imaging of Drosophila embryos, and will focus on a cell shape change called cellularization.

The developing Drosophila melanogaster embryo undergoes a number of cell shape changes that are highly amenable to live confocal imaging.  Cell shape ...

Chromatin Immunoprecipitation Assay for Tissue-specific Genes using Early-stage Mouse Embryos

Chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) is a powerful tool to identify protein:chromatin interactions that occur in the context of living cells 1-3. This technique has been widely exploited in tissue culture cells, and to a lesser extent, in primary tissue. The application of ChIP to rodent embryonic tissue, especially at early times of development, is complicated by the limited amount of tissue and the heterogeneity of cell and tissue types in the embryo. Here we present a method to perform ChIP using a dissociated embryonic day 8.5 (E8.5) embryo. Sheared chromatin from a single E8.5 embryo can be divided into up to five aliquots, which allows the investigator sufficient material for controls and for investigation of specific protein:chromatin interactions.
We have utilized this technique to begin to document protein:chromatin interactions during the specification of tissue-specific gene expression programs. The heterogeneity of cell types in an embryo necessarily restricts the application of this technique because the result is the detection of protein:chromatin interactions without distinguishing whether the interactions occur in all, a subset of, or a single cell type(s). However, examination of tissue-specific genes during or following the onset of tissue-specific gene expression is feasible for two reasons. First, immunoprecipitation of tissue specific factors necessarily isolates chromatin from the cell type where the factor is expressed. Second, immunoprecipitation of coactivators and histones containing post-translational modifications that are associated with gene activation should only be found at genes and gene regulatory sequences in the cell type where the gene is being or has been activated. The technique should be applicable to the study of most tissue-specific gene activation events.
In the example described below, we utilized E8.5 and E9.5 mouse embryos to examine factor binding at a skeletal muscle specific gene promoter. Somites, which are the precursor tissues from which the skeletal muscles of the trunk and limbs will form, are present at E8.5-9.54,5. Myogenin is a regulatory factor required for skeletal muscle differentiation 6-9. The data demonstrate that myogenin is associated with its own promoter in E8.5 and E9.5 embryos. Because myogenin is only expressed in somites at this stage of development 6,10, the data indicate that myogenin interactions with its own promoter have already occurred in skeletal muscle precursor cells in E8.5 embryos.

We demonstrate a chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) method to identify factor interactions at tissue-specific genes during or after the onset of tissue-specific gene expression in mouse embryonic tissue. This protocol should be widely applicable for the study of tissue-specific gene activation as it occurs during normal embryonic development.

Chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) is a powerful tool to identify protein:chromatin interactions that occur in the context of living cells 1-3. This ...

Imaging Glycans in Zebrafish Embryos by Metabolic Labeling and Bioorthogonal Click Chemistry

Imaging glycans in vivo has recently been enabled using a bioorthogonal chemical reporter strategy by treating cells or organisms with azide- or alkyne-tagged monosaccharides1, 2. The modified monosaccharides, processed by the glycan biosynthetic machinery, are incorporated into cell surface glycoconjugates. The bioorthogonal azide or alkyne tags then allow covalent conjugation with fluorescent probes for visualization, or with affinity probes for enrichment and glycoproteomic analysis. This protocol describes the procedures typically used for noninvasive imaging of fucosylated glycans in zebrafish embryos, including: 1) microinjection of one-cell stage embryos with GDP-5-alkynylfucose (GDP-FucAl), 2) labeling fucosylated glycans in the enveloping layer of zebrafish embryos with azide-conjugated fluorophores via biocompatible Cu(I)-catalyzed azide-alkyne cycloaddition (CuAAC), and 3) imaging by confocal microscopy3. The method described here can be readily extended to visualize other classes of glycans, e.g. glycans containing sialic acid4 and N-acetylgalactosamine5, 6, in developing zebrafish and in other living organisms.

A click-chemistry based method that allows for the rapid, noninvasive, and robust labeling of alkyne-tagged glycans in zebrafish embryos is described. Fucosylated glycans in the enveloping layer of zebrafish embryos in the late gastrulation stage were imaged in this study.

Imaging glycans in vivo has recently been enabled using a bioorthogonal chemical reporter strategy by treating cells or organisms with azide- or ...

Metabolic Profile Analysis of Zebrafish Embryos

A growing goal in the field of metabolism is to determine the impact of genetics on different aspects of mitochondrial function. Understanding these relationships will help to understand the underlying etiology for a range of diseases linked with mitochondrial dysfunction, such as diabetes and obesity. Recent advances in instrumentation, has enabled the monitoring of distinct parameters of mitochondrial function in cell lines or tissue explants. Here we present a method for a rapid and sensitive analysis of mitochondrial function parameters in vivo during zebrafish embryonic development using the Seahorse bioscience XF 24 extracellular flux analyser. This protocol utilizes the Islet Capture microplates where a single embryo is placed in each well, allowing measurement of bioenergetics, including: (i) basal respiration; (ii) basal mitochondrial respiration (iii) mitochondrial respiration due to ATP turnover; (iv) mitochondrial uncoupled respiration or proton leak and (iv) maximum respiration. Using this approach embryonic zebrafish respiration parameters can be compared between wild type and genetically altered embryos (mutant, gene over-expression or gene knockdown) or those manipulated pharmacologically. It is anticipated that dissemination of this protocol will provide researchers with new tools to analyse the genetic basis of metabolic disorders in vivo in this relevant vertebrate animal model.

Zebrafish represent a powerful vertebrate model that has been under-utilised for metabolic studies. Here we describe a rapid way to measure the in vivo metabolic profile of developing zebrafish that allows the comparison of different mitochondrial function parameters between genetically or pharmacologically manipulated embryos, thereby increasing the applicability of this organism.

A growing goal in the field of metabolism is to determine the impact of genetics on different aspects of mitochondrial function. Understanding these ...

Methods Article

Semi-automated Imaging of Tissue-specific Fluorescence in Zebrafish Embryos